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环球时代英语专业考研MTI翻译硕士专四专八日语考研等Chapter4Syntax4.1Thetraditionalapproach4.1.1Number,genderandcase4.1.2Tenseandaspect[Forthesetwosections,pleaseconsultmaterialsontraditionalEnglishgrammar.–icywarmtea]4.1.3ConcordandgovernmentConcord(a.k.a.agreement)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.E.g.inEnglishthedeterminerandthenounitprecedesshouldconcordinnumberasinthisman,thesemen.Andtheformofasubjectshouldagreewiththatoftheverbintermsofnumberinthepresenttense,e.g.HespeaksEnglish;TheyspeakEnglish.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstruction.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.E.g.inEnglish,thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasinShegavehimabook;Shegaveabooktohim.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,governstheformofthepronounafterit.Theformeristhegovernor,andthelatteristhegoverned.4.2Thestructuralapproach4.2.1SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSyntagmatic(a.k.a.horizontal/chain)relationisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetweenweatherandtheothersinthefollowingsentence:Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.Paradigmatic(a.k.a.vertical/choice)relationisarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.4.2.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)1.HowtodoitImmediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentenceorawordgrouporaword.Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups环球时代英语专业考研MTI翻译硕士专四专八日语考研等(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.TheICanalysisofasentencemaybecarriedoutwithbracketsorshownwithatreediagram.E.g.PoorJohnranaway.→(1)((Poor)(John))((ran)(away)).(2)PoorJohnranaway2.ItsadvantagesThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,anyambiguities,ifany,willberevealedinthatICanalysisemphasizesnotonlythelinearstructureofthesentencebutalsothehierarchicalstructureofthesentence.E.g.thesentenceLeavethebookontheshelf.isambiguous.Ithastwomeanings:(1)Putthebookontheshelf;(2)Don’ttouchthebookontheshelf.Thesetwomeaningscanbeshownbythefollowingtreediagrams.(Omitted.Seethetextbookp125~128.)3.ItsproblemsHowever,ICanalysishasthreedisadvantages.First,atthebeginning,someadvocatorinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevel,willbecutintotwoparts.Butthisisnotpossible.E.g.Oldmenandwomenisambiguousinthatitmaymeanold+menandwomenoroldmen+andwomen.It’simpossibletocombinewithonlytheprecedingpartoronlythesucceedingpart.Second,constructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.E.g.thephrasalverbslikemakeup,turnon,orgiveupwillcauseproblemsinthatwhentheobjectisexpressedbyapronoun,itwillinterruptthephrasalverbasinmakeitup.ThemostseriousproblemisthattherearestructuralambiguitieswhichcannotberevealedbyICanalysis.E.g.thetreediagramandthelabelscanonlydooneanalysisfortheloveofGod.4.2.3EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsAnendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.Itisalsocalledheadedconstruction.Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrases.Theymaybefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:subordinateandcoordinateconstructions.Those,inwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstructionsdependent,aresubordinateconstructions.Inthecoordinateconstruction,therearemorethanonehead,e.g.boysandgirls,inwhichthetwocontentconstituents,环球时代英语专业考研MTI翻译硕士专四专八日语考研等boysandgirls,areofequalsyntacticstatus,andnooneisdependentontheother.Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnonoticeablecenterorheadinit.Typicalexocentricconstructionsareprepositionalphrases,subordinateclauses,Englishbasicsentences,andtheverbplusobjectconstructions.4.3Thegenerativeapproach4.3.1DeepandsurfacestructuresIntransformationalgenerativegrammar(a.k.a.T-Ggrammar),thedeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Thesurfacesstructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.TheexampleforthesurfacestructureisThenewspaperwasnotdeliveredtoday.Thedeepstructureoftheabovesentencewouldbesomethinglike:(negative)someone(pasttense)deliverthenewspapertoday(passive).Theitemsinbracketsarenotlexicalitemsbu