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TheOneAgainsttheManyArthurM.Schlesinger,Jr.U52Aboutauthor:ArthurM.Schlesinger,Jr.(1917-2007):oneofAmerica‘smosteminentandcontroversialhistorians.HewasaformerHarvardprofessorandspecialassistanttoPresidentKennedy.Thehistorianwhosemorethan20booksshapeddiscussionsfortwogenerationsaboutAmerica‘spast,andwhohimselfwasaprovocative(煽动性的),unabashedly(不加掩饰的，公然的)liberalpartisan,mostnotablyinservingintheKennedyWhiteHouse,Hisbooks,includesTheAgeofRoosevelt,volumesI,IIandIII;小阿瑟·施莱辛格,美国著名历史学家和政治评论家。哈佛毕业，曾任美国总统肯尼迪的白宫特别助理，被称为“最了解罗斯福和肯尼迪时代的人”，他支持自由主义，是“美国人争取民主行动”组织的创始人之一。3Aboutauthor:《一千天——肯尼迪在白宫》——小阿瑟·施莱辛格4Para2：Thecountrywasblessedbynotableadvantages——aboveall,bythefactthatpopulationwasscarceinrelationtoavailableresources.Thenwecangetthatasthepopulationspreadacrossthecountry,thepercentageofarablelandincountiesclosesttothedensestpopulationsdeclined.5Para3:Onefactorwasthedeepfaithineducation.Thehistoricalreason:ThefirstsettlersofAmericaisagroupofPuritans.Theyweremenofletters,hadattendedOxfordorCambridge,andcommunicatedwithintellectualsoverEurope.据记载，早期移民到马萨诸塞州的人当中，有超过一百个牛津、剑桥的毕业生。在到达新大陆仅仅六年之后，虽然清教徒们还在为基本的生存条件而奋斗，但是他们却克服了重重困难建立了哈佛学院。清教徒期望教会的传道人有高等的学历。今天的美国人毫无疑问地坚持了清教祖先的优良传统，非常地重视教育。所以可以说清教主义促进了最初美国教育的发展，对美国的教育产生了很大的影响。6Para5：Self-government：Itistheprinciplethatthepeoplearetheultimatesourceofgoverningauthorityandtheirgeneralwelfareistheonlylegitimatepurposeofgovernment.Representativeinstitutions:Itisasystemofgovernmentinstitutionsthatgivecitizenstheopportunitytovoteforrepresentativeswhowillworkontheirbehalf.7Para7：hedgehog&fox——anallusionfromaGreekpoetArchilochusBasically,humanbeingsarecategorizedaseitherhedgehogsorfoxes.Hedgehogs'livesareembodimentofasingle,centralvisionofrealityaccordingtowhichtheyfeel,breathe,experienceandthink-systemaddicts,inshort.Foxeslivecentrifugalthancentripetallives,pursuingmanydivergentendsand,generally,possessasenseofrealitythatpreventsthemfromformulatingadefinitegrandsystemofeverything,simplybecausetheyknowthatlifeistoocomplextobesqueezedintoanyProcrusteanunitaryscheme.8Para7：Thefoxknowsmanythings,butthehedgehogknowsonebigthing.古希腊诗人Archilochus说过：“狐狸知晓很多事物，而刺猬只懂一件重要的事。”一方面“刺猬”爱把一切与一种单一的中心观念相联系,形成一种单一的普遍组织原则，他们的存在以及他们所说的一切便有了意义；另一方面，“狐狸”却追求多种目标，这些目标通常或毫无联系或相互矛盾，即使有联系，也仅仅是事件方面的联系。9Para8：Calvinisttheology(加尔文主义)CalvinismisaProtestanttheologicalsystemandanapproachtotheChristianlife.Calvinistbelieversholdthathisfaith,ratherthanhissins,iswhatwillsavehim.10Para8：FivepointsofCalvinism1.Totaldepravity人完全堕落无法自救2.Unconditionalelection神无条件拣选罪人3.Limitedatonement有限的代赎4.Irresistiblegrace不可抗拒的恩典5.Perseveranceofthesaints圣徒蒙保守这五点教义的英文首字字母恰Tulip，即“郁金香”之义。Empiricismisatheorywhichstatesthatknowledgecomesonlyorprimarilyfromsensoryexperience.Oneofseveralviewsofepistemology,thestudyofhumanknowledge,alongwithrationalismandskepticism,empiricismemphasizestheroleofexperienceandevidence,especiallysensoryexperience,intheformationofideas,overthenotionofinnateideasortraditions;empiricistsmayarguehoweverthattraditions(orcustoms)ariseduetorelationsofprevioussenseexperiences.Empiricism经验论Rationalism理性主义•rationalismistheviewthatregardsreasonasthechiefsourceandtestofknowledgeoranyviewappealingtoreasonasasourceofknowledgeorjustification.Moreformally,rationalismisdefinedasamethodologyoratheoryinwhichthecriterionofthetruthisnotsensorybutintellectualanddeductive.Rationalistsbelieverealityhasanintrinsicallylogicalstructure.Becauseofthis,rationalistsarguethatcertaintruthsexistandthattheintellectcandirectlygraspthesetruths.Thatistosay,rationalistsassertthatcertainrationalprinciplesexistinlogic,mathematics,ethics,andmetaphysicsthataresofundamentallytruethatdenyingthemcausesonetofallintocontradiction.Rationalistshavesuchahighconfidenceinreasonthatproofandphysicalevidenceareunnecessarytoascertaintruth–inotherwords,therearesignificantwaysinwhichourconceptsandknowledgearegainedindependentlyofsenseexperience.Becauseofthisbelief,empiricismisoneofrationalism'sgreatestrivals.Apriori先验的•“Apriori”isaLatintermusedtoidentifyatypeofknowledgewhichisobtainedindependentlyofexperience.Apropositionisknownaprioriifwhenjudgedtrueorfalseonedoesnotrefertoexperience.Pragmatism实用主义•PragmatismisaphilosophicaltraditionthatbeganintheUnitedStatesaround1870.[1]Pragmatismisarejectionoftheideathatthefunctionofthoughtistodescribe,represent,ormirrorreality.Instead,pragmatistsdeveloptheirphilosophyaroundtheideathatthefunctionofthoughtisasaninstrumentortoolforprediction,action,andproblemsolving.Pragmatistscontendthatmostphilosophicaltopics—suchasthenatureofknowledge,language,concepts,meaning,belief,andscience—areallbestviewedintermsoftheirpracticalusesandsuccessesratherthanintermsofrepresentativeaccuracy.•CharlesSandersPeirce(andhispragmaticmaxim)deservesmuchofthecreditforpragmatism,alongwithlatertwentiethcenturycontributors,WilliamJamesandJohnDewey.PragmatismenjoyedrenewedattentionafterWillardVanOrmanQuineandWilfridSellarsusedarevisedpragmatismtocriticizelogicalpositivisminthe1960s.InspiredbytheworkofQuineandSellars,abrandofpragmatismknownsometimesasneopragmatismgainedinflue