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1Chapter7cognitionModelsofmemoryNeithermodelisperfectNeithermodeldescribesphysicalstructuresinthebrain.Memoriesaredistributedaroundthecortex.Three-box/information-processingmodelExternaleventsarefirstprocessedbyoursensorymemory.Thensomeinformationisencodedintoshort-term(working)memory.Someofthatinformationisthenencodedintolong-termmemory.1)Sensorymemory感觉记忆Alltheinformationyoursensesareprocessingrightnowisheldinthesensorymemoryforaveryshortperiodoftime(lessthanasecond)GeorgeSperling(iconicmemory图片:asplit-secondperfectphotographofasense)Otherexperiments(echoicmemory声音:anequallybrief,3-4second,memoryforsounds)Eventsareencodedas:Visualcodes/acousticcodes(sounds)/semanticcodes(meaningoftheevent)Selectiveattention选择性注意:determineswhichsensorymessagesgetencoded.Weencodewhatweareattendingtoorwhatisimportanttous.--cocktailpartyeffect2)Short-term/workingmemory短期记忆everythingyouarethinkingatthecurrentmomentisheldinyourshort-termorworkingmemory.Theyaretemporaryandusuallyfadein10to30sLimitation:7!Plusorminus2Thislimitationcanbeexpandedthrough“chunking”(group)/orrehearse(repeat)3)Long-termmemory长期记忆unlimitedyetnottrulypermanent(willdecay/fade)long-termmemorycanbestoredin3differentformats:a)Episodicmemory(specificevents,storedinasequentialseriesofevents,eg:lasttimeyouwentonadate)情节b)Semanticmemory(generalknowledgeoftheworld,storedasfacts,meanings,orcategories,eg:thedifferencebetweenthetermseffectandaffect)语义c)Proceduralmemory(skillsandhowtoperformthem,eg:howtothrowacurveball)程序Memorycanalsobedividedinto2kinds:a)Implicitmemory(alsocallednondeclarativememories)areunintentionalmemoriesthatwemightnotevenrealizewehave.内隐记忆2b)Explicitmemory(alsocalleddeclarativememories)arewhatweusuallythinkoffirst.Theyareconsciousmemoriesoffactsoreventsweactivelytrytoremember.外显记忆Eidetic/photographicmemory:touseverypowerfulandenduringvisualimagestorememberinformation.AlexandraLindastudiedapatientwitheideticmemorywhocouldrepeatalistof70lettersordigitsandevenrecallitupto15yearslater.摄影式记忆，即过目不忘LevelsofprocessingmodelLevelsofprocessingmodel:explainswhywerememberwhatwedobyexamininghowdeeplythememorywasprocessedorthoughtabout.Memoriesareneithershort-norlong-term.Theyaredeeply/elaborativelyorshallowly/maintenanceprocessed.记忆不分长短期记忆，分为精细加工或粗浅加工Accordingtothelevelsofprocessingtheory,werememberthingswespendmorecognitivetimeandenergyprocessing.Eg:werememberstoriesbetterthansimplerecitationofevents,werememberquestionsbetterthanstatements.retrievalThelaststepinanymemorymodelisretrieval提取:gettinginformationourofmemorysowecanuseit.2kindsofretrieval:1)Recognition:theprocessofmatchingacurrenteventorfactwithonealreadyinmemory.Eg:haveIsmelledthissmellbefore?选择题，是非题2)Recall更难:toretrievememorywithexternalcue.Eg:WhatdoesmyAuntBeki’sperfumesmelllike?简答题Severalfactorsthatinfluenceretrieval:1)Order:Serialpositioneffect/curvebyHermannEbbinghaus艾宾浩斯:a)Primacyeffect首因效应:wearemorelikelytorecallitemspresentedatthebeginningofalistb)Recencyeffect近因效应:recalltheitemsattheendofalistc)Itemsinthemiddlearemostoftenforgotten.2)Contexta)Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenonthetemporaryinabilitytorememberinformationwhy?semanticnetworktheoryexplains:ourbrainmightformnewmemoriesbyconnectingtheirmeaningandcontextwithmeaningsalreadyinmemory.b)Flashbulbmemoriespowerfulbecausetheimportanceoftheeventcausedustoencodethecontextsurroundingtheevent.However,theycanbeinaccurate.Perhapswetendtoconstructpartofthememorytofillinthegapsinourstories.c)State-dependentmemorythephenomenonofrecallingeventsencodedwhileinparticularstatesofconsciousness.3Eg:alcoholandotherdrugsaffectmemoryinsimilarways.d)Moodcongruentmemorythegreaterlikelihoodofrecallinganitemwhenourmoodmatchedthemoodwewereinwhentheeventhappened.Eg:wearelikelytorecallhappyeventswhenwearehappyandrecallnegativeeventswhenwearefeelingpessimistic.Constructivememory1)Recoveredmemory:Individualsclaimsuddenlytoremembereventstheyhave“repressed”foryears,oftenintheprocessoftherapy.2)Constructed/reconstructedmemory:reportsfalsedetailsofarealeventormightevenbearecollectionofaneventthatneveroccurred.3)Aneffectivemethodfortestingwhetheramemoryisactuallytrueistouseotherevidence,suchasphysicalevidenceorothervalidatedreportsoftheevent.用其他证据来测试记忆是否准确Forgetting1)Decay消退遗忘:forgettingbecausewedonotuseamemoryorconnectionstoamemoryforalongperiodoftime.Relearningeffect:Evenmemoriesthatdecaydonotseemtodisappearcompletely.Ifyouhavetomemorizetheinformationyouhaveforgotten,itwilltakeyoulesstimethatitdidthefirsttimeyoustudiedthem.2)Interference干扰阻碍:Sometimesotherinformationinyourmemorycompeteswithwhatyouaretryingtorecall.Interferencecanoccurthrough2processes:a)Retroactiveinterference:Learningnewinformationinterfereswiththerecallofolderinformation.想回忆的是旧信息，新的会阻碍Eg:ifyoustudyyourpsychologyat3:00andyoursociologyat6:00,youmighthavetroublerecallingthepsychologyinformationonatestthenextday.b)Proactiveinterference:Olderinformationlearnedpreviouslyinterfereswiththerecallofinformationlearnedmorerecently.想回忆的是新信息，旧的会阻碍Eg:ifaresearcherreadsyoualistofitemsinacertainorder,thenrereadsthemdiffer