AP-psychology总结Unit6

Chapter6LearningLeaningtips:thischapterisbettermemorizedbydifferentanimals.LearningLonglastingchangeinbehaviorresultingfromexperience1)Briefchangesarenotthoughttobeindicativeoflearning2)LearningmustresultfromexperienceratherthanfromanykindofinnateorbiologicalchangeClassicalconditioning(Associationofstimuli)1.IvanPavlov巴甫洛夫Peopleandanimalscanlearntoassociateneutralstimuli(eg.Sounds)withstimulithatproducereflexive,involuntaryresponses(eg.food)andwilllearntorespondsimilarlytothenewstimulusastheydidtotheoldone(eg.Salivate)Unconditionedstimulus(USorUSC):theoriginalstimulusthatelicitsanatural,reflexiveresponsewhichiscalledunconditionedresponse(URorUCR).Conditionedstimulus(CS):thestimulusthatelicitaresponse(conditionedresponse,CR)throughrepeatedlyletanimalsassociatethetwostimulitogether.考点：搞清楚US/CS/CR/UR分别是什么意思，能根据实际案例判别2.Acquisition习得:learningthattakenplaceoncetheanimalsrespondtotheCSwithoutapresentationoftheUS.3.Factorsthataffectacquisition:1.RepeatedpairingsofCSsandUSsyieldstrongerCRs.2.TheorderandtimingoftheCSandUSpairingsalsohaveanimpactonthestrengthofconditioning.4.Methodsofconditioning:1)Delayedconditioning:ThemosteffectivemethodofconditioningistopresenttheCSfirstandthentointroducetheUSwhiletheCSisstillevident.2)Traceconditioning:ThepresentationoftheCS,followedbyashortbreak,followedbythepresentationoftheUS.3)Simultaneousconditioning:CSandUSarepresentedatthesametime.4)Backwardconditioning:USispresentedfirstandisfollowedbytheCS.Thismethodisparticularlyineffective.5.Unleaned(Extinction)消退:theprocessofunlearningabehavior.IttakesplacewhentheCSnolongerelicitstheCR.6.Spontaneousrecovery自发恢复:afteraconditionedresponsehasbeenextinguishedandnofurthertrainingoftheanimalshastakenplace,theresponsebrieflyreappearsuponpresentationoftheconditionedstimulus.7.Generalization刺激泛化thetendencytorespondtosimilarCSsEg：一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳Eg:JohnB.Watson’sLittleAlbertexperiment8.Discrimination刺激辨别totrainanimalstotellthedifferencebetweensimilarCSs.Eg:totrainthedogstodiscriminatebetweenbells,wewouldrepeatedlypairtheoriginalbellwithpresentationoffood,butwewouldintermixtrialswherewepresentedotherbellsthatwedidnotpairwithfood9.Aversiveconditioning厌恶条件反射thesubjectisconditionedtohaveanegativeresponsetothestimulus.10.Second-order/higher-orderconditioningonceaCSelicitsaCR,itispossibletousethatCSasaUSinordertoconditionaresponsetoanewstimulus.11.Learnedtasteaversion(GarciaEffect)animalsandhumansarebiologicallypreparedtomakecertainconnectionsmoreeasilythanothers.Ifyouingestanunusualfoodordrinkandthenbecomenauseous,youwillprobablydevelopanaversiontothefoodordrink.Itisinterestingbecauseitcanresultinpowerfulavoidanceresponsesonthebasisofasinglepairing.Operantconditioning(associationof1.EdwardThorndike桑代克1)Experiment:catinapuzzleboxconsequenceswithone’sbehaviors)Thehungrycatlockedinapuzzleboxnexttoadishoffoodtheamountoftimerequiredforthecattogetoutoftheboxdecreasedgraduallyoveraseriesoftrialsthecatlearnedthenewbehaviorwithoutmentalactivitybutrathersimplyconnectedastimulusandaresponse.2)Lawofeffectiftheconsequencesofabehaviorarepleasant,thestimulus-response(SR)connectionwillbestrengthenedandthelikelihoodofthebehaviorwillincrease.However,iftheconsequencesofabehaviorareunpleasant,theS-Rconnectionwillweakenandthelikelihoodofthebehaviorwilldecrease.3)InstrumentallearningusedtodescribeThorndike’sworkbecausetheconsequenceisinstrumentalinshapingfuturebehaviors.2.B.F.Skinner斯金纳coinedthetermoperantconditioning1)Skinnerboxaboxthathasawaytodeliverfoodtoananimalandalever杠杆topressordisktopeckinordertogetthefood.2)reinforcement强化Reinforcement:anythingthatmakesabehaviormorelikelytooccurisareinforce(eg:foodfortherat).a)Positivereinforcement:theadditionofsomethingpleasant.(eg:givearatinaSkinnerboxfoodwhenitpressesalever)b)Negativereinforcement:theremovalofsomethingunpleasant.(eg:terminatealoudnoiseorshockinresponsetoapressofthelever)Escapelearning:allowsonetoterminateanaversivestimulus.Avoidancelearning:enablesonetoavoidtheunpleasantstimulusaltogether.3)PunishmentPunishment:anythingthatmakesabehaviorlesslikelytooccur.a)Positivepunishment:theadditionofsomethingunpleasant.(eg:givearatanelectricshockeverytimeittouchesthelever)b)Omissiontraining/negativepunishment:theremovalofsomethingpleasant.(eg:removetherat’sfoodwhenittouchesthelever)Punishmentismosteffectiveifitisdeliveredimmediatelyaftertheunwantedbehaviorandifitisharsh.However,harshpunishmentmayresultinunwantedconsequencessuchasfearandanger,somostpsychologistsrecommendthatcertainkindsofpunishment(suchasphysicalpunishment)beusedsparinglyifatall.(Unlessbehaviorsarereinforced,thelikelihoodoftheirrecurrencedecreases.)4)Shaping:reinforcesthestepsusedtoreachthedesiredbehavior.Byrewardingapproximationsofthedesirebehavior,weincreasethelikelihoodthattheratwillstumbleuponthebehaviorwewant.Thegoalofshaping:tomoldasinglebehavior(abarpressbyarat)5)Chaining:subjectsaretaughttoperformanumberofresponsessuccessivelyinordertogetareward.Thegoalofchaining:tolinktogetheranumberofsparatebehaviorsintoamorecomplexactivity.(ratsrunanobstaclecourse