AP-psychology总结Unit9

Chapter9DevelopmentalPsychologyDevelopmentalPsychologyFrombirthtodeath.Itisanappliedtopicratherthanpureresearchtopic:applyfromotherareasofpsychology.2basiccontroversies:1)nature(geneticfactors)VSnurture(environmentalfactors)2)continuityVSdiscontinuityResearchmethods1、Cross-sectionalresearch:usesparticipantsofdifferentagestocomparehowcertainvariablesmaychangeoverthelifespan.2、Longitudinalresearch:examinesonegroupofparticipantsovertime.Moreprecisebuttime-consuming.Prenatalinfluences产前影响1、Genes2、Teratogens（environmental）1)Teratogens畸胎原:certainchemicalsoragentscancauseharmifingestedorcontractedbythemother.2)Theplacenta胎盘canfilteroutmanypotentiallyharmfulsubstances,butteratogenspassthroughthisbarrierandcanaffectthefetusinprofoundways.Eg.Alcohol,psychoactivedrugs,pollutingchemicals,certainbacteriaandviruses.3)Fetalalcoholsyndrome(FAS):childrenbornwithFAShavesmall,malformedskullandmentalretardation.4)Fetalalcoholeffect:alesssevereeffectofmoderatedrinkingduringpregnancy.Itmayhavespecificdevelopmentalproblemslaterinlife,suchaslearningdisabilitiesorbehavioralproblems.Motor/sensorydevelopment1、Reflexes:1)Inthepast,itisbelievedthathumansarebornasBlankslates:helplessandwithoutanyskillsorreflexes.2)Infact,therearenewbornreflexes:wearebornwithandloselaterinlife(someotherreflexes(eg:eyeblinking)remainwithusthroughoutourlife):a)Rootingreflex觅食:Whentouchedonthecheek,ababywillturnhisorherheadtothesidewhereheorshefeltthetouchandseektoputtheobjectintohisorhermouth.b)Suckingreflex吮吸:Whenanobjectisplacedintothebaby’smouth,theinfantwillsuckonit.c)Graspingreflex抓:Ifanobjectisplacedintoababy’spalmorfootpad,thebabywilltrytograsptheobjectwithhisorherfingersortoes.d)Mororeflex缩:Whenstartled,ababywillflinghisorherlimbsourandthenquicklyretractthem,makinghimselforherselfassmallaspossible.e)Babinskireflex脚趾张开:Whenababy’sfootisstroked,heorshewillspreadthetoes.2、TheNewborn’sSenses除了视觉，其他都已发展良好1)Hearing:dominantsense2)Taste&smell：likethewayweare,andprefersugarconcentratedfood3)Vision：verypoor4)Face-like：helpthemseetheirmother3、Motordevelopment1)Developinthesamesequencebutdifferenttiming2)EnvironmentaleffectisslightParenting：Attachmenttheory1、KonradLorenz:someinfantanimalsbecomeattachedonindividualsorevenobjectstheyseeduringacriticalperiodafterbirth.Eg：丑小鸭2、HarryHarlow:babymonkeywith2artificialwireframefigures1)Wheninfantmonkeyswerefrightened,theypreferthesoftmother(withsoftmaterial)thantheothermother(withbottleofmilk)theimportanceofphysicalcomfortintheformationofattachmentwithparents.2)Themonkeysraisedbywireframemothersbecamemorestressedandfrightenedthanmonkeysraisedbyrealmotherswhenputintonewsituations.Thedeprivationofanattachmentwitharealmotherhadlong-termeffectsonmonkey’sbehavior.3、MaryAinsworth:strangesituationObservedinfant’sreactionswhenplacedintoastrangesituation:theirparentsleftthemaloneforashortperiodoftimeandthenreturned.1)Infantswithsecureattachments(about66%)confidentlyexplorethenovelenvironmentwhiletheparentsarepresent,aredistressedwhentheyleaveandcometotheparentswhentheyreturn.此类最常见2)Infantswithavoidanceattachments(about21%)mayresistbeingheldbytheparentsandwillexplorethenovelenvironment.Theydonotgototheparentsforcomfortwhentheyreturnafteranabsence.3)Infantswithanxious/ambivalentattachments/resistantattachments(about12%)haveambivalentreactionstoparents.Theymayshowextremestresswhentheparentsleavebutresistbeingcomfortedbythemwhentheyreturn.ParentingstylesDianaBaumrind:parent-childinteractions(theresearchiscorrelationalnotcausational)1、Authoritarianparents:setstrictstandardsfortheirchildren’sbehaviorandapplypunishmentforviolationoftheserules.Punishmentmorethanreinforcement.独裁withoutexplanationanddiscussion2、Permissiveparents:donotsetclearguidelinesfortheirchildren.Therulesthatdoexistinthefamilyareconstantlychangedorarenotenforcedconsistently.放任自由reactionwouldbeunpredictable3、Authoritativeparents:haveset,consistentstandardsfortheirchildren’sbehavior,butthestandardsarereasonableandexplained.Therationaleforfamilyrulesarediscussedwithchildrenoldenoughtounderstandthem.权威reasonablewithexplanation4、Childrenfrom:1)authoritarianfamilyaremorelikelytodistrustothersandbewithdrawnfrompeers.2)permissivefamilyaremorelikelytohaveemotionalcontrolproblemsandaremoredependent.3)authoritativefamilyaremoresociallycapableandperformbetteracademically.Stagetheories(可以按照婴儿-幼儿园-小学-中学-成年-中年-老年，以及在这些阶段发生的主要事情、学校的主要学习内容来辅助记忆)1、ContinuityVSdiscontinuity:Stagetheoriesarediscontinuoustheoriesofdevelopment.2、LevVygotsky:Zoneofproximaldevelopment最近发展区（跳起来拿苹果，跳的距离就是~）Achild’szoneofproximaldevelopmentistherangeoftasksthechildcanperformindependentlyandthosetasksthechildneedsassistancewith.Teachers/parentscanprovide‘scaffolds’forstudentstohelpthemaccomplishtasksattheupperendoftheirzoneofproximaldevelopment,encouragingfurthercognitivedevelopment.SigmundFreud1、(lessscientificallyverifiablebuthistoricallyimportant)2、Thefirstpersontotheorizechildhoodstages3、Sexual：meansnottheactofintercoursebuthowwegetsensualpleasurefromtheworld.人格发展的原理：性4、Fixated：Ifwefailtoresolveasignificantconflictin