搜索
Chapter21.Deicticexpression/indexical:deixisisatechnicaltermforoneofthemostbasicthingswedowithutterances.Itmeans“pointing”vialanguage.Anylinguisticformusedtoaccomplishthis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression.Forexample,whenyounoticeastrangeobjectandask,“What’sthat?”,youareusingadeicticexpression“that”toindicatesomethingintheimmediatecontext.2.Persondeixis:formsusedtoindicatesomepeople,eg,meyou.3.Spatialdeixis:formsusedtopointtolocation,eg.Herethere.4.Temporaldeixis:formsusedtopointtolocationintime,eg,nowthen.5.Proximalterms:indicatenearspeaker,thisherenow.Forexample,“now”isgenerallyunderstoodasreferringtosomepointorperiodintimethathasthetimeofthespeaker’sutteranceatitscenter.6.Distalterms:indicateawayfromspeaker,thattherethen.7.Deicticcenter:thespeaker’slocation/time.8.Honorifics:expressionswhichindicatehigherstatus.9.T/Vdistinction:thedistinctionbetweenformsusedforafamiliarversusanon-familiaraddresseeinsomelanguages.Forexample,tufamiliarvousnon-familiar.10.Deicticprojection:speakersactingasiftheyaresomewhereelse.Froexample,speakersmayprojectthemselvesintootherlocationspriortoactuallybeinginthoselocations,aswhentheysay”Iwillcomelater.”11.Psychologicaldistance:speaker’smarkingofhowcloseordistantsomethingisperceivedtobe.Forexample,aspeakermaywishtomarksomethingthatisphysicallyclose(forexample,aperfumebeingsniffedbythespeaker)aspsychologicallydistant“Idon’tlikethat”.Chapter41.Presupposition：apresuppositionissomethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutterance.Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppositions.Forexample,inproducingtheutterance“Mary’sbrotherboughtthreehorses.”,thespeakerwillnormallybeexpectedtohavethepresuppositionsthatapersoncalledMaryexistsandthatshehasabrother.2.Entailment:anentailmentissomethingthatlogicallyfollowsformwhatisassertedintheutterance.Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.Forexample,thesentence“Mary’sbrotherboughtthreehorses”willbetreatedashavingtheentailmentsthatMary’sbrotherboughtsomething,boughtthreeanimals,boughttwohorses,boughtonehorse,andmanyothersimilarlogicalconsequences.3.Constancyundernegation:itmeansthatthepresuppositionofasentencewillremainconstantevenwhenthatstatementisnegated.Forexample,when“EverybodyknowsthatJohnisgay”isnegatedasin“Everybodydoesn’tknowthatJohnisgay”,thepresuppositionthat“Johnisgay”isstilltrue.4.Potentialpresupposition:anassumptiontypicallyassociatedwithuseofalinguisticform,eg.Theuseoftheverb“regret”in“Heregretsdoingthat”carriesanassumptionthatheactually“didthat”.5.Existentialpresupposition:anassumptionthatsomeoneorsomething,identifiedbyuseofanounphrase,doesexist.Forexample,thenounphrase“yourcar”assumesthepresuppositionthat“youhaveacar”.6.Factivepresupposition:theassumptionthatinformationstatedaftercertainwords,eg,“know”“regret”,istrue.Forexample,theutterancethat“I’mgladthatit’sover”assumesthetruththat“It’sover”.7.Lexicalpresupposition:theassumptionthat,inusingoneword,thespeakercanactasifanothermeaningwillbeunderstood.Forexample,eachtimeyousaythatsomeone“managed”todosomething,theassertedmeaningisthatthepersonsucceededinsomeway.8.Structuralpresupposition:theassumptionthatpartofastructurecontainedinformationbeingtreatedasalreadyknown.Forexample,thewh-questionconstructionlike“whendidheleave?”,isinterpretedwiththepresuppositionthattheinformationafterthewh-form,“heleft”,isalreadyknowntobethecase.9.Non-factivepresupposition:theassumptionthatcertaininformation,likethatassociatedwithverbs“dream”,“imagine”and“pretend”,isnottrue.Forexample,whenyousay”IdreamedthatIwasrich”,thepresuppositionisthatwhatfollowstheword“dreamed”isnottrue.Thatis“Iwasnotrich.”10.Counter-factivepresupposition:theassumptionthatcertaininformationistheoppositeoftrue.Forexample,aconditionalclauselike“IfIhadacar”presentsthetruththatIdon’thaveacar.11.Projectionproblem:themeaningofsomepresuppositions(asparts)doesn’tsurvivetobecomethemeaningofsomecomplexsentences(aswholes).Forexample,thepresupposition“Kellywasill”isassumedtobetrueinthesimplestructure“NobodyrealizedthatKellywasill”.Butitisnottrueinthecomplexstructurethat“IimaginedthatKellywasillandnobodyrealizedthatshewasill”.12.Backgroundentailments:alllogicalconsequenceofanutterance.Forexample,thebackgroundentailmentsof“Roverchasedthreedogs”canbe“somethingchasedthreedogs”,“Roverdidsomethingtothreedogs”,or“Roverchasedthreeofsomething”andsoon.13.Foregroundentailment:themainlogicalconsequenceofanutterance.Forexample,whenRoveristhefocusoftheutterance“Roverchasedthreedogs”,themainassumptionisthatsomethingchasedthreedogs.Chapter51.Tautology:anapparentlymeaninglessexpressioninwhichonewordisdefinedasitself,eg.Businessisbusiness.2.Implicature/Conversationalimplicature:anadditionalunstatedmeaningthathastobeassumedinordertomaintainthecooperativeprinciple,eg.Ifsomeonesays“ThePresidentisamouse”,somethingthatisliterallyfalse,thehearermustassumethespeakermeanstoconveymorethanisbeingsaid.3.Cooperativeprinciple:abasicassumptioninconversationthateachparticipantwillattempttocontributeappropriately,attherequiredtime,tothecurrentexchangeoftalk.Foursub-principles