空气污染英国需要采取更多措施来净化污浊的空气Airpollution空气污染Thebigsmoke雾都Britainneedstodomoretocleanupitsdirtyair英国需要采取更多措施来净化污浊的空气VISITINGOxfordStreet,aroadteemingwithtattyshopsandovercrowdedwithpeople,isplainlyatrial.Lessplainly,levelsofnitrogendioxide(NO2),anoxiousgas,havebeenfoundtobearoundthreetimeshighertherethanthelegallimit.In2013theannualmeanconcentrationofNO2onthestreetwasoneofthehighestlevelsfoundanywhereinEurope.来到牛津街,你会看到街道两边布满了各式杂乱的商店,而道路上人满为患。行走在这条街上,很明显是个磨练。不为人觉察的是,这里有毒气体二氧化氮(NO2)测出含量超出法定水平的约三倍以上。2013年,这条街的NO2年均浓度是欧洲最高之一。Britishairisfarcleanerthanitwasafewdecadesago.Fewerpeopleusecoal-burningstoves;oldindustrialplantshavebeendecommissioned.Butsince2009levelsofnitrogenoxidesandparticulatematter,coarseorfineparticlesthatarelinkedtolungcancerandasthma,havefallenmoreslowly.Theexactnumberofdeathscausedbydirtyairisunknown.Butin2010agovernmentadvisorygroupestimatedthatremovingman-madefineparticulatematterfromtheatmospherewouldincreaselifeexpectancyforthosebornin2008byanaverageofsixmonths.英国的空气比几十年前干净多了。使用燃煤炉灶的人越来越少;老工业厂已经停产。但自2009年起,氧化氮、微粒物质、以及与肺癌和哮喘相关的粗、细颗粒含量的下降速度减慢了。因污浊空气所引发的死亡人数是未知的。但2010年,一个政府顾问组估算如果将大气中人为造成的微粒物质除去的话,2008年的出生人口人均寿命将增加六个月。Muchoftheslowdownistheresultoffumesfromdieselcars,whichwerechampionedbysuccessivegovernmentsbecausetheyuselessfuelandthusproducelesscarbondioxidethanpetrolcars.In2001only14%ofallcarsranondiesel;by2013theproportionhadincreasedto35%.(Greener“hybrid”andelectriccarshaveincreasedninefoldsince2006,butaccountforjust0.5%oftheentirefleet.)Second-handcarsareparticularlynoxious,butevenneweroneshavenotbeenascleanashoped.Manycarsthatbelchedoutfewpollutantsintestsproducedmorewhenontheroads.下降速度放缓的大部分原因在于柴油汽车排放的尾气—这为历任政府所支持,因为柴油汽车耗用更少的能源,比汽油汽车排放更少的二氧化碳。2001年,仅14%的汽车使用柴油。2013年,这个比例上涨到了35%。(更绿色的“混合动力”和电瓶车自2006年以来增加了九倍,但仅占汽车总量的0.5%。)二手汽车尤其有害,但新车也没所期望的那样清洁。很多车在污染物排放测试中排放量低,车在上路时却排放了更多。Climatechangeandgeoengineering气候变化与地质工程学Fearsofabrightplanet地球发光,令人担心Experimentsdesignedtolearnmoreaboutwaysofgeoengineeringtheclimateshouldbeallowedtoproceed为更好地利用工程学手段研究气候问题所设计的实验应该获准进行下去。SHINYthingsabsorblessheatwhenleftinthesun.ThismeansthatiftheEarthcouldbemadealittleshinieritwouldbelesssusceptibletoglobalwarming.Waystobrightenit,suchasaddingnanoscalespecksofsalttolowclouds,makingthemwhiter,orputtingathinhazeofparticlesintothestratosphere,aretheprovinceof“geoengineering”.Thesmallbandofscientistswhichhavebeenstudyingthissubjectoverthepastdecadeorsohavemostlybeenusingcomputermodels.Someofthemarenowproposingoutdoorexperiments—usingseawater-fedsprayerstochurnoutparticlesoftheexactsizeneededtobrightenclouds,orspewingsulphurparticlesfromunderneathalargeballoon20kmupinthesky.发光的物体放在太阳下面会吸收较少的热量。这就意味着如果让地球发一点光的话,受到全球变暖的影响就会小一些。让地球发光的方式,比方说在低空云层上添加纳米级的盐微粒,让云变得更白,或者是将一层薄的雾状物洒向平流层,这些都属于地质工程学的范畴。过去十年左右研究这一领域的一小批科学家主要使用计算机模型,其中一些人现在提出要做室外实验――就是用装有海水的喷雾器射出大量使云彩发光所需的相同大小的粒子,或者从升到距地面20公里处的大型气球下喷洒硫粒子。Theaimsaremodest.Thescientistshopetounderstandsomeoftheprocessesonwhichthesetechnologiesdepend,asawayofbothgaugingtheirfeasibility(canyoureliablymaketinypuffsofseasaltbrightenclouds?)andassessingtheirrisks(howmuchdamagetotheozonelayermightastratospherichazedo,andhowmightsuchdamagebeminimized?).Theexperimentswouldbefartoosmalltohaveanyclimaticeffects.Theamountofsulphurputintothestratospherebytheexperimentalballoonwouldbe2%ofwhatapassengerjetcrossingtheAtlanticemitsinanhour.这样做的目标并不宏伟。科学家们希望能够了解这些技术所依托的一些过程,也是作为衡量其可行性(能否可靠使用微小的海盐粒子让云彩发光?)和评估其风险(附着在平流层的雾状物会给臭氧层造成多大危害,如何把危害降到最低?)的方式。这些实验对气候变化的影响微乎其微。实验所用的气球投入平流层的硫总量相当于横越大西洋的喷气式客一小时喷射气体总量的2%。Nonetheless,theseexperiments—andthiswholelineofresearch—arehugelycontroversial.Manyscientistsareskepticalaboutgeoengineeringandmostgreensareoutraged.Opponentsobjecttothemforarangeofreasons.Someareagainsttheveryideaofgeoengineeringandanyexperimentsinthearea,eventhosewhichposenoimmediaterisktotheenvironment.Theyabhorthehubrisinvolvedintryingtoaffectthemechanicsoftheclimateanddespairatthepotentialdiversionofattentionfromcontrollingcarbonemissionsastheroutetocounteringclimatechange.Theyfindtheideaofsome–possiblymany—countrieshavingthepowertochangetheclimateforthewholeplanetageopoliticalnightmare.Evenmodestexperimentsingeoengineering,accordingtothislogic,arethebeginningsofaslipperyslope,onethatwillengenderafalsesenseofsecurityanddomesticateanideathatshouldhavealwaysremainedoutrageous.尽管如此,这些实验以及整个研究领域存在巨大争议。许多科学家怀疑地质工程学,多数绿党成员感到很气愤。反对的原因很多。一些人反对地质工程学这一学科和涉及该领域的实验,甚至对环境不会立即造成风险的实验也遭到了反对。他们讨厌尽力影响气候机制而产生的傲慢行为,并对应对气候变化过程中可能将注意力远离控制碳排放的行为感到绝望。他们发现,一些(也可能是许多)国家有能力改变全球气候的想法是一个地缘政治的梦魇。根据这一逻辑,即使是很小的地质工程实验也是大灾难的开端,会产生不真实的安全感,并滋生一种永远都令人气愤的想法。Yetcavingintothisoppositionwouldraise,ratherthanreduce,thedangerstotheplanet.Geoengineeringisnotanalternativetomitigatingclimatechangebycuttingcarbonemissions,butitmaybeneededasacomplementtoit.AlthoughpressureforcutsincarbonemissionsthroughnegotiationssuchasthosecurrentlytakingplaceinLimaisyieldingresults—witnesstherecentagreementbyChinaandAmericaonnewreductiontargets—ithassofarbeeninsufficienttothetask,andemissionslooksettorisefordecadesyet.然而,向这种反对声音投降会增加而非减少对地球造成的危险。通过减少碳排放来缓解气候变