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TheEnlightenment18century:EnlightenmentBeliefinnaturallawanduniversalorderConfidenceinhumanreasonRationalandscientificapproachtoreligious,social,political,andeconomicissuesSecularviewoftheworldGeneralsenseofprogressandperfectibilityResult•AtlanticRevolution•AmericanRevolution•AmericanDeclarationofIndependence•TheUnitedStatesBillofRights•theFrenchDeclarationofrightsofManandoftheCitizen•Polish–LithuanianConstitutionofMay31791“TheEnlightenmentismankind‘sfinalcomingofage,theemancipation(解放)ofthehumanconsciousnessfromanimmaturestateofignorance(无知)anderror.“-ImmanuelKantTheAgeofEnlightenment(orAgeofReason)wasaneliteculturalmovementofintellectualsin18thcenturyEuropethatsought(寻求)tousethepowerofreason(理性)inordertoreformsocietyandadvanceknowledge.Itpromoted(促进)intellectualinterchangeandopposedintolerance(偏执)andabusesinChurchandstate.Originatingabout1650–1700,itwassparkedbyphilosophersamongthemwereBaruchSpinoza(1632–1677),JohnLocke(1632–1704),mathematicianIsaacNewton(1643–1727)andothers.Rulingprincesoftenendorsed(赞同)andfostered(培养)Enlightenmentfiguresandevenattemptedtoapply(应用)theirideasofgovernment.TheEnlightenmentflourished(繁荣兴旺)untilabout1790–1800,afterwhichtheemphasisonreasongavewaytoRomanticism‘semphasisonemotionandaCounter-EnlightenmentgainedforceDiderot德尼·狄德罗DenisDiderotwasaFrenchphilosopher,artcritic,andwriter.HewasaprominentpersonduringtheEnlightenmentandisbestknownforservingasco-founderandchiefeditorofandcontributortotheEncyclopedie.EncyclopedieThefirstEncyclopedia(百科全书)isconsideredtobethepinnacle(顶点)oftheEnlightenmentperiod.ItwascompiledbyDenisDiderotin1751-1772.EncyclopedieIthadcontributionsfromhundredsofleadingintellectuals(知识分子)calledphilosophes.AmongthemwereVoltaire(1694–1778),Rousseau(1712–1778)andMontesquieu(1689–1755).Some25,000copiesofthe35volumesetweresold,halfofthemoutsideFrance.VoltaireHewasfamousforhiswitandforhisadvocacy(提倡)ofcivilliberties(公民自由),includingfreedomofreligion,freetrade,andseparationofchurchandstate.Voltairewasaprolificwriter,producingworksinalmosteveryliteraryform,includingplays,poetry,novels,essays,andhistoricalandscientificworks.Hewrotemorethan20,000lettersandmorethan2,000booksandpamphlets.VoltaireHewasanoutspoken(直言,坦率的)supporterofsocialreform,despitestrictcensorship(审查)lawsandharshpenaltiesforthosewhobrokethem.Asasatiricalpolemicist(辩论者),hefrequentlymadeuseofhisworkstocriticizeintolerance,religiousdogmaandtheFrenchinstitutionsofhisday.HismostfamousworkisCandide.VoltaireInCandide,Voltairedemonstratesavarietyofirredeemable(无法挽救的)evilsintheworld,leadingmanycriticstocontendthat(争辩道)Voltaire'streatmentofevil—specificallythetheologicalproblemofevil—isthefocusofthework.HeavilyreferencedinthetextaretheLisbonearthquake,disease,andthesinkingofshipsinstorms.Also,war,thievery,andmurder—evilsofhumandesign—areexploredasextensivelyinCandideasareenvironmentalills.TheTheologicalProblemofEvil•Godexists.•Godisomnipotent,omniscient,andperfectlygood.•Aperfectlygoodbeingwouldwanttopreventallevils.•Anomniscientbeingknowseverywayinwhichevilscancomeintoexistence.•Anomnipotentbeing,whoknowseverywayinwhichanevilcancomeintoexistence,hasthepowertopreventthatevilfromcomingintoexistence.•Abeingwhoknowseverywayinwhichanevilcancomeintoexistence,whoisabletopreventthatevilfromcomingintoexistence,andwhowantstodoso,wouldpreventtheexistenceofthatevil.•Ifthereexistsanomnipotent,omniscient,andperfectlygoodbeing,thennoevilexists.•Evilexists(logicalcontradiction)逻辑矛盾VoltaireWhileonhisdeathbed,hewasaskedtorenounceSatan,towhichheresponded:Thisisnotimeformakingnewenemies.RousseauJean-JacquesRousseauwasaphilosopher,writer,andcomposer.HispoliticalphilosophyheavilyinfluencedtheFrenchRevolution,aswellastheoveralldevelopmentofmodernpolitical,sociological,andeducationalthought.RousseauDiscourseontheOriginandBasisofInequalityAmongMen(1754).ForRousseau,civilsocietywasatrick(伎俩)perpetratedbythepowerfulontheweakinordertomaintaintheirpowerorwealth.Hehadabeliefinthe“NobleSavage”(高尚蛮人,圣洁野性).“Thefirstmanwho,havingfencedinapieceofland,said‘Thisismine,’andfoundpeoplenaïve(天真的)enoughtobelievehim,thatmanwasthetruefounderofcivilsociety.Fromhowmanycrimes,wars,andmurders,fromhowmanyhorrorsandmisfortunesmightnotanyonehavesavedmankind,bypullingupthestakes,orfillinguptheditch,andcryingtohisfellows:Bewareoflisteningtothisimpostor;youareundoneifyouonceforgetthatthefruitsoftheearthbelongtousall,andtheearthitselftonobody.”RousseauTheSocialContract(1762)byJean-JacquesRousseau,isthebookinwhichRousseautheorizedaboutthebestwayinwhichtosetupapoliticalcommunity.-Manisbornfree,andeverywhereheisinchains.-TheSovereign,havingnoforceotherthanthelegislativepower,actsonlybymeansofthelaws;andthelawsbeingsolelytheauthenticactsofthegeneralwill,theSovereigncannotactsavewhenthepeopleisassembled.-Everylawthepeoplehavenotratifiedinpersonisnullandvoid—is,infact,notalaw.-Thelegislativepowerbelongstothepeople,andcanbelongtoitalone.RousseauHisworkEmile(1762)wasconsideredbyRousseautobehismostimportantworkandwasrelatedtoeducationreform.ItisaBildungsroman(教育小说以描述主角成长过程为主题的小