杨忠《语言学概论》笔记

·1·Chapter1IntroductionⅠ.Whatislanguage?1.Differentdefinitionsoflanguage(1)Languageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)(2)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)(3)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.2.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.3.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Ⅱ.Featuresofhumanlanguage1.Creativity(1)Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.(2)Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.2.Duality(1)Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.(2)Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.(3)Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.3.Arbitrariness(1)Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.(2)Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.4.Displacement(1)Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.(2)Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.5.Culturaltransmission(1)Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.(2)Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.6.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.7.Reflexivity(1)Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.(2)Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.Ⅲ.Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions1.Theideationalfunction·2·Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.2.TheinterpersonalfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.3.ThetextualfunctionToformatext.Ⅳ.Typesoflanguage1.Geneticclassification2.Typologicalclassification(1)Analyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese(2)Syntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman(3)Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishⅤ.Themythoflanguage–languageorigin1.TheBiblicalaccountLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.2.Thebow-wowtheoryLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.3.Thepooh-poohtheoryLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.4.Theyo-he-hotheoryLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.5.TheevolutiontheoryLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.Ⅵ.Whatislinguistics?1.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.(1)Observing&questioning(2)Formulatinghypotheses(3)Verifyingthehypotheses(4)Proposingatheory2.Branchesoflinguistics(1)Internalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemantics·3·(2)Externalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguistics3.Featuresoflinguistics(1)Descriptive(2)Dealingwithspokenlanguage(3)SynchronicChapter2PhoneticsⅠ.Whatisphonetics?1.Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.2.Sub-branchesofphonetics(1)Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds(2)Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds(3)Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsⅡ.Thespeechorgans1.Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?Fromthelung2.Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?Controllingtheairstream3.Whatarethecavities?(1)Oralcavity(2)Pharyngealcavity(3)NasalcavityⅢ.Transcriptionofspeechsounds1.UnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)2.Phoneticsymbols(1)ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).(2)TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbracketstodistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.(3)Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.Ⅳ.Descriptionofspeechsounds1.DescriptionofEnglishconsonants(1)Generalfeature:obstruction·4·(2)CriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulation(3)PlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:[f][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]Palatal:[][][t][d][j]Velar:[k][g][]Glottal:[h](4)MannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricatives:[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]Affricates:[t][d]Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[w][