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.Chapter1Invitationstolinguistics1.2whatislanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsforhumancommunication1.3designfeaturesoflanguagearbitrariness:thereisnoconnectionbetweenthewords;soundanditsmeaningduality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructurescreativity(productivity):userscanproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Itspotentialtocreateendlesssentencesbyrecursiveness.displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothecontextremovedfromtheimmediatesituationofthespeakers.culturaltransmission:languageispassedothroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.1.4originoflanguageThebow-wowtheory:imitatethesoundsofanimalThepooh-poohtheory:instinctivesoundsofjoy,agerandpainTheyo-he-hotheory:rhythmicgruntsproducedwhenworking1.5functionsoflanguage1.5.1themainfunctionsoflanguage:Descriptivefunctions:cognitiveorreferentialorpropositionalfunction.Primaryfunctionoflanguage.,toconveyfactualinformationExpressivefunction:emotiveorattitudinalfunction,suppliesusers’feelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.Socialfunction:interpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople1.5.2accordingtoJakobson:Emotive:addresser表达情感Conative:addressee导致动作的发生Referential:context描述客观事实Poetic:message语言本身的美Phaticcommunication:contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic:codemakeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself1.5.3accordingtoHallidaythissystemcontainsthreemacrofunctionsIdeational:toorganizethespeakerorwriter’sexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.达意功能指组织说.话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal:toindicate,establishormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。Textualfunction:toorganizewrittenorspokentextsinsuchamannerthattheyarecoherentwithinthemselvesandfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.组篇功能指组成书面或或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。1.6whatislinguistics:Thescientificstudyoflanguage1.9importantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptive：aimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.describehowthingsarePrescriptive:规范性aimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusinglanguage,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsaySynchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeDiachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageataperiodoftimeSpeech：ispriortowriting,anditplaysamoreimportantroleintermsofinformationWriting:shouldbetaughtandlearnedinschoolsLangue:anabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofspeechcommunityParole:therealizationoflangueinactualuseCompetence：theidealusers’sknowledgeofhisrulesofhislanguagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Traditionalgrammar:isprescriptiveandtendtoemphasizetheimportanceofwrittenwordModerngrammar:descriptive,regardspokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Chapter2SpeechsoundsPhonetics:thestudyofspeechsounds,theproduction,transmissionandperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonology:itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Itstudiessoundpatterns,howsoundsarecombinedtogether.Thestudyodspeechsoundsisdividedintothreemainareas,eachdealingwithonepartoftheprocess..1).Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.发音语音学2).Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds声学语音学3).Perceptualorauditoryphonetics:isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.听觉语音学2.3phone,phoneme,allophonePhone:isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundsthatwehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Individualsoundsastheyoccurinspeech.Phoneme：thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.isaphonologicalunit;itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Allophone:anyofthedifferentformsofaphoneme.thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledallophone2.4consonantsConsonants:arespeechsoundswhereobstructionofairstreamisblockedsomewhereinthemouthorthroattodifferentdegrees,voicedorvoiceless.Vowels:arespeechsoundswhichtheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,andwhichisusuallypronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords,too.noobstruction,voiced2.5suprasegmentalfeaturesThephoneticfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeaturesSyllable:aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.ThesyllablestructureStress:itreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable1)atthewordlevel:thelocationofstressinenglishdistinguishesmeaning2)Atthesentencelevel:therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Tone:pitchvariation,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Intonation:whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.补充：1.Sequentialrules:therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage2.phonemiccontrast:iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphoneticcontrast单个音的关系，属于不同的phonemeComplementarydistribution:theallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution变体之间是互补的.关系Minimalpair：音串eg:ki