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Chapter6PRAGMATICS1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?答：Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontext.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inordertohaveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethecontextintotheirconsiderationsoastoeffecttherightmeaningandintention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetweenthemliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,whilesemanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextintoconsiderationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyoflinguisticcommunication?答：Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscontinentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,andknowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguageandalsotheheater'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withoutsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldnotbepossible,andwithoutconsideringsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.Lookatthefollowingsentences:(1)Howdiditgo?(2)Itiscoldinhem.(3)ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.Sentence(1)mightbeusedinaconversationbetweentwostudentstalkingaboutanexamination,ortwosurgeonstalkingaboutanoperation,orinsomeothercontexts;(2)mightbesaidbythespeakertoaskthehearertoturnontheheater,orleavetheplace,ortoputonmoreclothes,ortoapologizeforthepoorconditionoftheroom,dependingonthesituationofcontext;(3)makessenseonlyiithehearerhastheknowledgethatChristmasfallsinsummerinthesouthernhemisphere.3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?答：Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Butifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Soitisimpossibletotellif“Thedogisbarking”isasentenceoranutterance.Itcanbeeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingtoanalyzeit.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Therefore,whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualized,thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Now,takethesentenceMybagisheavyasanexample.Semanticanalysisofthemeaningofthesentenceresultsintheone-placepredicationBAG(BEINGHEAVY).Thenapragmaticanalysisoftheutterancemeaningofthe.sentencevarieswiththecontextinwhichitisuttered.Forexample,itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibilityisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone'srequestforhelp.Allthesearepossibleinterpretationsofthesameutterance“Mybagisheavy”.Howitistobeunderstooddependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofgrammaticallycompletesentences,someutterancesdonot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:a)Theroomismessy.b)Oh,itisraining!c)Themusicofthemovieisgood.d)Youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow.答：a)Afatherenteredhisson’sroomandfounditisverymessy.Thenwhenhesaid,“Theroomismessy,”hewasblaminghissonfornottidyingitup.b)Asonaskedhisfathertoplaywithhimoutside.Sowhenthefathersaid,“Oh,it’sraining”,hemeanttheycouldn’tplayoutside.c)Twopersonsjustwatchedamovieandhadadiscussionofit.Onepersonsaid,“Thestoryofthemovieisverymoving”,sowhentheotherpersonsaid,“Themusicofthemovieisgood”,hemeanthedidn'tthinkthestoryofthemoviewasgood.d)Apersonwantedhisnotesback,sowhenhesaid,“youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow”,hewasdemandingthereturnofhisnotes.5.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.答：AccordingtoAustin'snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itis