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语言学Linguistic各章重点，学习资料整理1.1Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.2Designfeaturesoflanguage①Arbitrariness任意性:Thepropertyoflanguagebywhichthereisingeneralnonatural(i.e.logical)relationbetweentheformofasinglelexicalunitanditsmeaning.②Duality二重性Languageconsistsoftwolevelsofstructures.Thelower(secondary)levelisadefinitesetofmeaninglesssounds,whichcombinetoformmeaningfulunitswhichconstituteahigher(primary)level.③Creativity创造性Languageiscreativeinthesensethatitsuserscanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.④Displacement移位性Bydisplacementismeantthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsthatarenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.1.3Functionsoflanguage①Informative信息功能Languageservesaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtoexpressthespeaker’sopinion,tostateafact,ortoreasonthingsout.②Interpersonalfunction人际功能Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.③Performative行事功能Languagecanbeusedtodothings,toperformaction.e.g.“Isurrender.”“I’lldoittonight.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”“Isentenceyoutothreeyearsinprison.”④Emotivefunction感情功能Theuseoflanguagetorevealthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.“Ouch!”,“I’mterriblysorryabout…”(alternativelycalledexpressivefunction)⑤Phaticcommunion寒暄交谈Theuseoflanguagetoestablishormaintainacomfortablesocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.E.g.greetings,farewells,andtalkingabouttheweather.⑥Recreationalfunction娱乐功能Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit.E.g.singing,poetrywriting.⑦Metalingualfunction元语言功能Theuseoflanguagetomakestatementsaboutlanguageitself.Thelanguageaboutwhichtheyaremadeiscalledtheobjectlanguage.1.4Whatislinguistics?Thescientificstudyoflanguage.1.5Microlinguistics①Phonetics语音学Thestudyofthenature,production,andperceptionofsoundsofspeech,inabstractionfromthephonologyofanyspecificlanguage.Variouslydividedintoacousticphonetics,articulatoryphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.②Phonology音系学Thestudyofthesoundsystemsofindividuallanguagesandofthenatureofsuchsystemsgenerally.③Morphology形态学Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.④Syntax句法学Thebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.⑤Semantics语义学Thestudyofmeaning.⑥Pragmatics语用学Thestudyofthemeaningsthatsentenceshaveinparticularcontexts.1.6LanguageandcultureLanguageisanindispensablecarrierofculture.Culturefindsabetterrepresentationthroughlanguageuse.1.7MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)最大节前辅音原则Whichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecode.1.8Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Descriptivevs.prescriptive描写vs.规定Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalyzeslinguisticfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifitlaysdownrulesforgrammaticalcorrectness.②Synchronicvs.diachronic共时vs.历时Thestudyoflanguageasitsexistsataparticularpointintimeissynchronic.③Languevs.parole语言vs.言语AdistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(索绪尔1857-1913).Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualizedlanguage,orrealizationoflangue.④Competencevs.performance语言能力vs.语言运用Competenceisthespeaker-listener’sknowledgeofhislanguageandperformanceistheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter2SpeechSounds1.IPA：InternationalPhoneticAssociation(国际语音学协会).2.ThetheoryofcardinalvowelsCardinalvowels:AsetofvowelsestablishedbyDanielJonesasfixedandunchangingreferencepointsforthedescriptionofvowelsinanylanguage.Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfromonetoeight:8个基本元音：记住：p34,p35,p36三个表格。3.Phonemesandallophones①Minimalpair最小对立体:Twowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesound(onephoneme)andwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordsbitandbetareaminimalpair②complimentary：4.PhonologicalprocessAssimilation同化:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofneighboringsound.Assimilationisoftenusedsynonymouswithcoarticulation.①Ifafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound,itisregressiveassimilation逆同化:e.g.can,tan,tenth,ninth,sink,mink,gooseberry,raspberry,cupboard,fivepence,haveto,usedto,pancake,sunglass.②ifaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound,itisProgressiveassimilation顺同化e.g.works,words,pears,writes,rides,eyes,laughed,loved,played.5.ThethreevariantsofthepluralforminEnglish:①：the/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds②：the/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds③：the/əz/appearsaftersibilants6.StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.①:句子的重音。②：单词的重音7.Tone.EnglishisnottonelanguagebutChineseis.Chapter31.Morpheme:isthesmallestunitoflanguageinregardtotherelationshipbetweensoundingandmeaning,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning.2.Determiner:前位：all,both,half;double,twice,threetimes,etc;one-third,two-fifths,etc;what,such,(a/an)中位：：a(n),thethis,that,these,thosemy,your,his,her,our,Jim’s,mymother’ssome,any,no,every,each,either,neither,enough,what(ever),which(ever),whose,etc后位：on