WhyHistoriansDisagreeAllenF.Davis&HaroldD.Woodman1Moststudentsareusuallyintroducedtothestudyofhistorybywayofafattextbookandbecomequicklyimmersedinavastseaofnames,dates,eventsandstatistics.Thestudents'skillsarethentestedbyexaminationsthatrequirethemtoshowhowmuchofthedatatheyremember;themoretheyremember,thehighertheirgrades.Fromthisexperienceanumberofconclusionsseemobvious:thestudyofhistoryisthestudyoffactsaboutthepast;themorefactsyouknow,thebetteryouareasastudentofhistory.Theprofessionalhistorianissimplyonewhobringstogetheraverylargenumberoffacts.Thereforestudentsoftenbecomeconfusedupondiscoveringthathistoriansoftendisagreesharplyevenwhentheyaredealingwithethesameevent.大多数学生通常都是通过一本厚厚的教科书接触历史的,然后他们很快便淹没在浩瀚如海的名字、日期、事件和数据当中。然后学生们的学习水平通过考试来检验,主要考察他们记住了多少资料;记得越多,成绩就越好。我们可以从中得出一些显而易见的结论:历史学习就是学习过去的”事实“;你知道的历史”事实“越多,你的历史就学得越好。专业历史学家们就是将大量”事实“搜集到一起的人。因此,当学生们发现历史学家们甚至对同一个历史事件常常有完全不同的意见时,他们常常感到困惑不解。2Theircommonsensereactiontothisstateofaffairsistoconcludethatonehistorianisrightwhiletheotheriswrong.Andpresumably,historianswhoarewrongwillhavetheirfactswrong.Thisisseldomthecase,however.Historiansusuallyallarguereasonablyandpersuasively.And,thefacts---thenames,dates,events,statistics--usuallyturnouttobecorrect.Moreover,theyoftenfindthatcontendinghistoriansmoreorlessagreeonthefacts;thatis,theyusemuchthesamedata.Theycometodifferentconclusionsbecausetheyviewthepastformadifferentperspective.History,whichseemedtobeacut-and-driedmatterofmemorizingfacts,nowbecomesamatterofchoosingonegoodinterpretationformamongmany.Historicaltruthbecomesamatterofpersonalpreference.面对这种情况,学生们的通常反应是,断定其中一位历史学家是正确的,而另一位是错误的。而且,据此推测,错误的历史学家们所掌握的”史实“是错的。然而,实际情况很少是这样的。历史学家们的论证通常都有理有据,并具有说服力。而且,那些”事实“---名字、日期、事件和数据---通常被证明是正确的。此外,学生们常常发现争论不休的历史学家或多或少认同这些”史实“;也就是说,他们使用的资料几乎相同。他们得出不同的结论是因为他们从不同的角度看待历史。原本历史似乎是一件记忆”史实“的事,现在却变成从许多解释中挑选出一种合理的解释的事了。历史真相变成了个人喜好问题。3Thispositionishardlysatisfying.Theycannothelpbutfeelthattwodiametricallyopposedpointsofviewaboutaneventcannotbothberight;yettheylacktheabilitytodecidebetweenthem.这种看法几乎难以令人满意。学生们不禁觉得,关于同一个历史事件的两种截然相反的观点不可能同时正确;然而,他们缺乏判断孰是孰非的能力。4Tounderstandwhyhistoriansdisagree,studentsmustconsideraproblemtheyhavemoreorlesstakenforgranted.Theymustaskthemselveswhathistoryreallyis.要理解历史学家们为什么意见不统一,学生们必须考虑一个他们或多或少已经认为理所当然的问题。他们必须问问自己,历史到底是什么。5Initsbroadestsense,historydenotesthewholeofthehumanpast.Morerestrictedisthenotionthathistoryistherecordedpast,thatis,thatpartofhumanlifewhichhasleftsomesortofrecordsuchasfolktales,artifacts,orwrittendocuments.Finally,historymaybedefinedasthatwhichhistorianswriteaboutthepast.Ofcoursethethreemeaningsarerelated.Historiansmustbasetheiraccountsontheremainsofthepast,leftbypeople.Obviouslytheycannotknoweverythingforthesimplereasonthatnoteveryevent,everyhappening,wasfullyandcompletelyrecorded.Thereforethehistoriancanonlyapproximatehistoryatbest.Noonecaneverclaimtohaveconcludedthequest.从最广义的角度看,历史是指人类过去的全部。若加以限定,历史是有记录的过去,即人类生活中留下某种记录的那部分,如明间故事、手工制品或书面文件等。最后,历史也可以被定义为历史学家们对过去的描述。当然,这三种定义是相互关联的。历史学家们对历史的描述必须以过去人们的遗物为基础。显然,他们不可能清楚过去的一切,原因很简单,并非过去的每一大小事件都被全面完整地记录下来。因此,历史学家们至多只能是接近历史。没有哪位历史学家敢断言自己已终止了对历史的探索。6Butthisdoesnotsayenough.Ifhistorianscannotknoweverythingbecausenoteverythingwasrecorded,neitherdotheyusealltherecordsthatareavailabletothem.Rather,theyselectonlythoserecordstheydeemmostsignificant.Moreover,theyalsore-createpartsofthepast.Likedetectives,theypiecetogetherevidencetofillinthegapsintheavailablerecords.但这种解释还是不够。如果说历史学家因为过去的一切并非都有记载而不能全面了解历史,他们也不会全部采用获得的所有历史记录。相反,他们只挑选那些他们认为最重要的记录来用。此外,他们还对部分历史进行重新创造。就像侦探一样,他们要拼凑已有证据来填补现有记录中的空白。7HistoriansareabletoselectandcreateevidencebyusingsometheoryofhumanmotivationsandbehaviorSometimesthisappearstobeeasy,requiringverylittlesophisticationandsubtlety.Thus,forexample,historiansinvestigatingAmerica'sentryintoWorldWarIwouldprobablyfindthatthesinkingofAmericanmerchantshipsonthehighseasbyGermansubmarineswasrelevanttotheirdiscussion.Atthesametime,theywouldmostlikelynotuseevidencethatPresidentWoodrowWilsonwasdissatisfiedwitheanewhatheboughtduringthefirstmonthsof1917.Thechoiceastowhichfacttouseisbasedonatheory--admittedly,inthiscasearathercrudetheory,butatheorynonetheless.Itwouldgosomethinglikethis:Nationalleaderscontemplatingwararemorelikelytobeinfluencedbybelligerentactsagainsttheircountriesthanbytheirunhappinesswiththeirhaberdashers.根据某些有关人类动机和行为的理论,历史学家能够挑选和创造证据。有时,这看起来很容易,不需要复杂的经验和敏锐的观察力。比如说,那些研究美国参加第一次世界大战原因的历史学家很有可能会认为,德国潜水艇击沉在公海航行的美国商船这件事与他们的讨论有关。与此同时,他们绝不会使用伍德罗.威尔逊总统对他在1917年头几个月买的一顶新帽子不满意这样的证据。选择使用哪些事实是基于一种理论---不可否认,在这种情况下,这是一个相当粗糙的理论,但不管怎么说,它是一种理论。这个理论大致是这样的:对于考虑战争问题的国家领导人来说,他们更可能受到针对他们国家的寻衅行为的影响,而不是受到对服饰经销商的不满的影响。8Ifthechoiceswereassimpleasthis,theproblemwouldbeeasilyresolved.butthechoiceswerenotsoeasytomake.HistoriansinvestigatingtheUnitedStates'entryintoWorldWasIwillfindinadditiontoGermansubmarinewarfareawholeseriesofotherfactsthatcouldberelevanttotheeventunderstudy.Forinstance,theywillfindthattheBritishgovernmenthadapropagandamachineatworkintheUnitedStatesthatdiditsbesttowinpublicsupportfortheBritishcause.TheywilldiscoverthatAmericanban