第四章练习答案

语言学概论第四章第2-6题练习答案1.Definethefollowingterms:syntaxco-occurrenceconstructionconstituentendocentricexocentriccoordinationsubordinationcategoryagreementembeddingrecursivenessgrammaticalsubject&logicalsubjectcohesion[Answer]1.syntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.co-occurrence:Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,whatcanprecedeanoun(dog)isusuallythedeterminersandadjectives,andwhatcanfollowitwhenittakesthepositionofsubjectwillbepredicatorssuchasbark,bite,run,etc.Inshort,co-occurrenceisthesyntacticenvironmentinwhichaconstruction,withitsrelevantelements,canappeargrammaticallyandconventionally.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.construction:itreferstoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningoruseconstructcontains.Itcanbefurtherdividedintotheexternalandinternalproperties.TakesentenceTheboykickedtheballasanexample,wewilldeterminetheexternalsyntaxasanindependentclause,whileNP(“theboy”),VP(“kicked”)andNP(“theball”)willbeassignedrespectivelytothedifferentelementsinthisclause.constituent:Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:forexample,inthesentenceTheboyatetheapple,S(A),theboy(B),atetheapple(C),eachpartisaconstituent.Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(theboy)andC(atetheapple),arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA(“S”,hereasentence),thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.endocentric:Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCentreorHead.Inthephrasetwoprettygirls,girlsistheCentreorHeadofthisphraseorwordgroup.exocentric:Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinableCentreorHeadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.InthesentenceTheboysmiled,neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.coordination:AcommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesisformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butoror.Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Intheconstructiontheladyorthetiger,bothNPstheladyandthetigerhaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.subordination:Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.Inthephraseswimminginthelake,swimmingistheheadandinthelakearethewordsmodifyingthehead.category:Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,andsoon.agreement:Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).Forinstance,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthispenanditinthefollowingdialogue:--Whoseisthispen?--Oh,it’stheoneIlost.embedding:Embeddingreferstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinanotherclauseinsyntacticsubordination.E.g.,Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.recursiveness:itmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithin(i.e.,bedominatedby)anotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butitcanbeusedtoanymeanstoextendanyconstituent.Togetherwithopenness,recursivenessisthecoreofcreativityoflanguage.Forexample,“Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew”.grammaticalsubject&logicalsubject:Grammaticalandlogicalsubjectsaretwotermsaccountingforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice.TakethesentencesadogbitJohnandJohnwasbittenbyadogasexamples.Sincethecoreobjectnoun(Johninthiscase)sitsintheslotbeforetheverbinthepassive,itiscalledgrammaticalsubject,fortheoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb,thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies;thecoresubject(adog),nowtheobjectofapreposition(byadog),iscalledalogicalsubject,si