4-Gricean-Pragmatics---The-Cooperative-Principle

Unit4GriceanPragmatics:TheCooperativePrincipleContents4.1CP:theprinciple4.2CP:themaxims4.3Non-observanceofthemaxims4.4Calculatingconversationalimplicatures4.1CP:theprincipleWhyisCPproposed?1.Communicationinnaturallanguageinvolvesreasoningbasedonnotonlylogicalrelations,butalsocontextualinformationandhumanintention.2.Thefactthatwecangenerallyderivethecommunicatedimplicaturespresupposesthatconversationhingesonsomegeneralprincipleorlogic.4.1CP:theprincipleSomebasicassumptionsandobservationsforCPtobegenerated:1.Peopletalkrationallyinconversation;2.Theirtalkexchangesrepresentsomecooperativeefforts;3.Theinterlocutorshaveacommonpurposeoratleastacommondirectionfortheongoingconversation.4.2CP:themaximsGricearguedthat(1)thehearermayassumethatthespeakeradherestoanumberofmaxims;(2)thisassumptionguidesthehearerinmakinginferencesaboutwhatthespeakerintendstocommunicate.4.2CP:themaximsFollowingKantwhohighlightedhumanrationalityintermsoffourbasiccategories(quality,quantity,relation,andmanner),GriceproposedthattheCPofconversationmayconsistoffourcategoriesofmaxim,namelyQuality,Quantity,Relation,andManner.4.2CP:themaximsA.MaximofQualityThismaximrequiresthespeakerto“betruthful”or“totrytomakeacontributionthatistrue”.twosub-maxims:a.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;b.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.4.2CP:themaximsB.MaximofQuantityThismaximrequiresthespeakerto“beinformative”.twosub-maxims:a.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposedoftheexchange);b.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Maximbissomewhatredundant.4.2CP:themaximsC.MaximofRelationThismaximrequiresthespeakerto“berelevant”.Berelevant.4.2CP:themaximsD.MaximofMannerThismaxim,relatednottowhatissaidbuttohowwhatissaidissaid,requiresthespeakerto“beperspicuous”.a.Avoidobscurityofexpression;b.Avoidambiguity;c.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity);d.Beorderly.4.2CP:themaximsAccordingtoGrice,thefourmaximsarenotequallybindingorregulativeoncommunicators’conversationalbehaviorbecause“theobservanceofsomeofthesemaximsisamatteroflessurgencythanistheobservanceofothers”.4.3Non-observanceofthemaximsTheinterlocutorsarenotnormallyexpectedtoobserveeachofthemaximsofCP.Onthecontrary,theircooperationoftentakesvariousformsof“non-cooperation”,intentionalorpurposefuldeviationfromoneormoreofthemaxims.4.3Non-observanceofthemaximsAccordingtoGrice,aspeakermayintentionallyorunintentionallyfailtofulfillamaximinthefollowingways:A.Aspeakermayquietlyandunostentatiouslyviolateamaxim.B.AspeakermayoptoutbyobservingneitherthemaximsnortheoverallCP.4.3Non-observanceofthemaximsC.Thespeakermayfulfillonemaximattheexpenseofanotherwhenaclashoraconflictbetweenthetwomaximsoccurs.D.Thespeakermayfloutaparticularmaxim.(炫弄或蔑视准则)CaseDisthemosttheoreticallyinteresting,becauseinthiscasethespeakerisexploitingamaximinordertogenerateaconversationalimplicature.4.4CalculatingconversationalimplicaturesFactorshelpingtofigureouttheconversationalimplicatures:a.theconventionalmeaningofthewordsused,togetherwiththereferencesofreferringexpressions;b.theCPanditsmaxims;c.thecontext,linguisticorsituational,oftheutterance;d.otheritemsofbackgroundknowledge;ande.thesupposedfactthatallrelevantitemsfallingundera-dareavailabletobothparticipantsandbothparticipantsknoworassumethistobethecase.4.4Calculatingconversationalimplicaturesthegeneralproceduresforcalculatingaconversationalimplicature:(p.57)