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THEGLOBALAPPARELVALUECHAIN:WhatProspectsforUpgradingbyDevelopingCountriesUNITEDNATIONSINDUSTRIALDEVELOPMENTORGANIZATIONeconomyenvironmentemploymentsectoralstudiesseriesUNITEDNATIONSINDUSTRIALDEVELOPMENTORGANIZATIONVienna,2003THEGLOBALAPPARELVALUECHAIN:WhatProspectsforUpgradingbyDevelopingCountriesGaryGereffiDepartmentofSociology,DukeUniversityDurham,USAandOlgaMemedovicUNIDO,StrategicResearchandEconomicsBranchsectoralstudiesseriesThispaperhasnotbeenformallyedited.Theviewsexpressedtherein,thedesignationsemployedaswellasthepresentationofmaterialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionsofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganizationconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.Designationssuchas“industrialized”,“developed”and“developing”countriesareintendedforstatisticalconvenienceanddonotnecessarilyexpressajudgementaboutthestagereachedbyaparticularcountryorareainthedevelopmentprocess.MentionoffirmnamesorcommercialproductsdoesnotimplyendorsementbyUNIDO.Materialinthispapermaybefreelyquotedbutacknowledgementisrequested,togetherwithacopyofthepublicationcontainingthequotationorreprint.iiAcknowledgementThispublicationhasbeenpreparedbyGaryGereffi,DepartmentofSociology,DukeUniversity,andOlgaMemedovic,UNIDOstaffmemberfromtheStrategicResearchandEconomicsBranch.FrédéricRichard,DirectoroftheStrategicResearchandEconomicsBranch,providedoverallguidance.UNIDOinternArjanStavastprovidedassistance.TheauthorsaregratefultoMr.John-PeterMoll,UNIDOexpertontextileandclothing,forprovidinghiscommentsduringthepreparationofthispaper.PenelopePlowdenandGeorginaWildeweretheprincipalEnglishlanguageeditorsofthepublication.PennyButlerwasthecopy-editor.iiiBlankContentsAcknowledgementiiiAbstractviiIntroduction1Globalvaluechains2Bigbuyersandglobalsourcing6Globalsourcinginapparel8ApparelsourcinginNorthAmerica16EuropeanandJapanesevariationsinapparelsourcingnetworks22Worldmarkettrends26Conclusion31References33TablesTable1TrendsinUnitedStates’apparelimportsbyregionandcountry,1983-200110Table2World's25leadingapparelexporters,1980,1990and200027Table3Positionofapparelamongleadingexportitems,1980-200030FiguresFigure1Theapparelvaluechain5Figure2ShiftsintheregionalstructureofUnitedStates'apparelimports,1990-200018Figure3ShiftsintheregionalstructureofEuropeanapparelimports,1990-200024Figure4ShiftsintheregionalstructureofJapaneseapparelimports,1990-200025vBoxesBox1Internationalproductionsystems1Box2WTOAgreementonTextilesandClothing12viAbstractThepaperusestheglobalvaluechainframeworktoexplainthetransformationsinproduction,tradeandcorporatestrategiesthatalteredtheapparelindustryoverthepastdecadesandchangedtheconditionsforinnovationandlearningintheindustry.Theapparelindustryisidentifiedasabuyer-drivenvaluechainthatcontainsthreetypesofleadfirms:retailers,marketersandbrandedmanufacturers.Withtheglobalizationofapparelproduction,competitionbetweentheleadingfirmsintheindustryhasintensifiedaseachtypeofleadfirmhasdevelopedextensiveglobalsourcingcapabilities.While“de-verticalizing”outofproduction,thesefirmsarefortifyingtheiractivitiesinthehighvalue-addeddesignandmarketingsegmentsoftheapparelchain,leadingtoablurringoftheboundariesbetweenthemandarealignmentofinterestswithinthechain.Innovationintheglobalapparelvaluechainisprimarilyassociatedwiththeshiftfromassemblytofull-packageproduction.Full-packageproductionchangesfundamentallytherelationshipbetweenbuyerandsuppliergivingmoreautonomytothesupplyingfirmandcreatingmorepossibilitiesforinnovationandlearning.ThepaperdistinguishesbetweenthreenewmodelsofcompetitionintheNorthAmericanmarketnamelytheEastAsian,MexicanandCaribbeanBasinmodel.Eachmodelpresentsdifferentperspectivesandchallengesforindustrialinnovationandlearning.viiBlankTheGlobalApparelValueChain:WhatProspectsforUpgradingbyDevelopingCountries?1IntroductionAlthoughitisgenerallyacceptedthattheclothingindustryplayedaleadingroleinEastAsia’searlyexportgrowth,thedegreetowhichinternationaltradecanbethebasisofsustainedeconomicgrowthfordevelopingcountrieshasbeenquestioned.Underwhatconditionscantrade-basedgrowthbeavehicleforgenuineindustrialupgrading,giventhefrequentcriticismsoflow-wage,low-skill,assembly-orientedexportactivities?DoAsia’saccomplishmentsintrade-ledindustrializationcontainsignificantlessonsforotherregionsoftheworld?Thisreportwilllookattheseandrelatedquestions,usingaglobalvaluechainframework.Avaluechainistherangeofactivitiesinvolvedinthedesign,productionandmarketingofaproduct,althoughthereisacriticaldistinctionbetweenbuyer-drivenandproducer-drivenvaluechains.Japaninthe1950sand1960s,theEastAsiannewlyindustrializingeconomies(NIEs)inthe1970sand1980sandChinainthe1990sbecameworld-classexportersprimarilybymasteringthedynamicsofbuyer-drivenvaluechains.Box1InternationalproductionsystemsAssemblyisaformofindustrialsubcontracting,inwhichgarmentsewingplantsareprovidedwithimportedinputsforassembly,mostcommonlyinexportprocessingzones(EPZs).Original