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第1页第一章1.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication2.Designfeaturesoflanguage①Arbitrariness(任意性)referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(soundsandmeanings)②Duality（二层性）:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.④Displacement(移位性):HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atmomentofcommunication.(p7)3.Functionsoflanguage①Informative(信息功能):togiveinformationaboutfacts.(ideational)第2页②Interpersonal(人际功能):toestablishandmaintainsocialstatusinasociety.(age,sex,language,background,accent,status)③Performative(施为功能):languageisusedtodothings,toperformcertainactions.(name,promise,apologize,sorry,declare)④.Emotive/Expressive(情感功能):toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.⑤Phaticcommunion(寒暄交流):tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.(health,weather)⑥Recreationalfunction(娱乐):theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.(lyrics,poetry)⑦Metalingualfunction(元语言功能):totalkaboutlanguageitself.4.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.5.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptive&prescriptiveSynchronic&diachronic第3页Langue&paroleCompetence&performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—laydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar:“neveruseadoublenegative”)7.Synchronicstudy(共时)—descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy(历时)—descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)第四章1．WhatisSyntax（句法）?Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．FourApproaches:Thetraditionalapproach传统语言观(Partsofspeech、SyntacticFunction不考、Category范畴、Concordandgovernment一致关系和支配关系)、Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach、Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观第4页3．Thetraditionalgrammarregardssentencesasasequenceofwords,soitpaysgreatattentiontothestudyofwords,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.4.PartsofspeechTraditionalgrammardefines8partsofspeech:nouns,verbs,pronouns,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctionsandinterjections.5．ThetermCategory范畴insomeapproachesreferstowordclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg.Noun,Verb,Subject,Predicate.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun名词的范畴,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability（case）;thecategoriesoftheverb动词的范畴:tense,aspect,voice,etc.6．Numberismostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun名词和不可数名词.Twotermsofnumberinnouns:singularandplural单数和复数第5页Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs7.Genderisalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsareonthewholenatural,determinedbythebiologicalgenderofthecreature.8.Caseisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative主格,accusative受格,andgenitive与格.Nounshavetwoofgeneralandgenitive所有格InEnglish,thecaseofnounisrealisedinthreechannels:(a)inflection(b)followingapreposition(c)wordorder9.Tense时态:theabsolutelocationofaneventoractionontime.Itismarkedbyaninflectionoftheverb.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotensesrecognizednow:pastandpresent.Sincethefuturetimedoesnotinvolveanyinflectionoftheverb,wedonotrefertoa“futuretense”,eventhoughinmanydifferentwayswecantalkaboutthefuture.10.Aspect体:Ithasnothingwithtime,andittellsuswhetheranactionisongoingorcompleted.Perfective（完成体）andImperfective（进行体）第6页PerfectiveandProgressive(inEnglish)11.Voice语态:describetherelationshipbetweenverbandsubjectPassive被动语态andactive主动语态12.Concordandgovernment①Concord(一致关系)referstoagreementbetweenwords,especiallybetweenaverbandthesubjectofasentence.②Government(支配关系)isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence.Intraditionalgrammar,thetermgovernmenthastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetweenverbsandnounsorbetweenprepositionsandnouns.13.TheStructuralApproach，由FerdinanddeSaussure提出14.SyntacticRelations：Positionalrelations位置关系、Relationsofsubstitutability替代关系、Relationsofco-occurrence同现关系15.Immediateconstituent(直接成分)isanymeaningfulconstituentatthefirststepinananalysis.16.Anendocentricconstruction(向心结构)isaconstructionthatcontains:1)ahead,whichisthesingleobligatoryelementinthe第7页construction;2)oneormoreoptionalelementssubordinatetothehead.17.theme(主位)referstotheknowninformationwhichisnotnewtothereaderorlistenerRheme(述位)referstotheinformationthatisnew.Thenewinformationiswhatisto