1492Ch02

Manahan,StanleyE.THEANTHROSPHERE,INDUSTRIALECOSYSTEMS,EnvironmentalChemistryBocaRaton:CRCPressLLC,2000ANDENVIRONMENTALCHEMISTRY2THEANTHROSPHERE,INDUSTRIALECOSYSTEMS,ANDENVIRONMENTALCHEMISTRY____________________________________________________2.1.THEANTHROSPHERETheanthrospheremaybedefinedasthatpartoftheenvironmentmadeormodifiedbyhumansandusedfortheiractivities.Ofcourse,therearesomeambigu-itiesassociatedwiththatdefinition.Clearly,afactorybuildingusedformanufactureispartoftheanthrosphereasisanocean-goingshipusedtoshipgoodsmadeinthefactory.Theoceanonwhichtheshipmovesbelongstothehydrosphere,butitisclearlyusedbyhumans.Apierconstructedontheoceanshoreandusedtoloadtheshipispartoftheanthrosphere,butitiscloselyassociatedwiththehydrosphere.DuringmostofitstimeonEarth,humankindmadelittleimpactontheplanet,anditssmall,widelyscatteredanthrosphericartifacts—simplehutsortentsfordwellings,narrowtrailswornacrossthelandformovement,clearingsinforeststogrowsomefood—restedlightlyonthelandwithvirtuallynoimpact.However,withincreasingeffectastheindustrialrevolutiondeveloped,andespeciallyduringthelastcentury,humanshavebuiltstructuresandmodifiedtheotherenvironmentalspheres,especiallythegeosphere,suchthatitisnecessarytoconsidertheanthrosphereasaseparateareawithpronounced,sometimesoverwhelminginfluenceontheenvironmentasawhole.ComponentsoftheAnthrosphereAsdiscussedlaterinthisbook,thevariousspheresoftheenvironmentareeachdividedintoseveralsubcategories.Forexample,thehydrosphereconsistsofoceans,streams,groundwater,iceinpolaricecaps,andothercomponents.Theanthrosphere,too,consistsofanumberofdifferentparts.Thesemaybecategorizedbyconsideringwherehumanslive;howtheymove;howtheymakeorprovidethethingsorservices©2000CRCPressLLCtheyneedorwant;howtheyproducefood,fiber,andwood;howtheyobtain,distribute,anduseenergy;howtheycommunicate;howtheyextractandprocessnonrenewableminerals;andhowtheycollect,treat,anddisposeofwastes.Withthesefactorsinmind,itispossibletodividetheanthrosphereintothefollowingcategories:•Structuresusedfordwellings•Structuresusedformanufacturing,commerce,education,andotheractivities•Utilities,includingwater,fuel,andelectricitydistributionsystems,andwastedistributionsystems,suchassewers•Structuresusedfortransportation,includingroads,railroads,airports,andwaterwaysconstructedormodifiedforwatertransport•Structuresandotherpartsoftheenvironmentmodifiedforfoodproduction,suchasfieldsusedforgrowingcropsandwatersystemsusedtoirrigatethefields•Machinesofvariouskinds,includingautomobiles,farmmachinery,andairplanes•Structuresanddevicesusedforcommunications,suchastelephonelinesorradiotransmittertowers•Structures,suchasminesoroilwells,associatedwithextractiveindustriesFromthelistgivenaboveitisobviousthattheanthrosphereisverycomplexwithanenormouspotentialtoaffecttheenvironment.Priortoaddressingtheseenvironmentaleffects,severalcategoriesoftheanthrospherewillbediscussedinmoredetail.2.2.TECHNOLOGYANDTHEANTHROSPHERESincetheanthrosphereistheresultoftechnology,itisappropriatetodiscusstechnologyatthispoint.Technologyreferstothewaysinwhichhumansdoandmakethingswithmaterialsandenergy.Inthemodernera,technologyistoalargeextenttheproductofengineeringbasedonscientificprinciples.Sciencedealswiththediscovery,explanation,anddevelopmentoftheoriespertainingtointerrelatednaturalphenomenaofenergy,matter,time,andspace.Basedonthefundamentalknowledgeofscience,engineeringprovidestheplansandmeanstoachievespecificpracticalobjectives.Technologyusestheseplanstocarryoutthedesiredobjectives.Technologyhasalonghistoryand,indeed,goesbackintoprehistorytotimeswhenhumansusedprimitivetoolsmadefromstone,wood,andbone.Ashumanssettledincities,humanandmaterialresourcesbecameconcentratedandfocusedsuchthattechnologybegantodevelopatanacceleratingpace.TechnologicaladvancespredatingtheRomaneraincludethedevelopmentofmetallurgy,beginningwithnativecopperaround4000B.C.,domesticationofthehorse,dis-©2000CRCPressLLCcoveryofthewheel,architecturetoenableconstructionofsubstantialbuildings,controlofwaterforcanalsandirrigation,andwritingforcommunication.TheGreekandRomanerassawthedevelopmentofmachines,includingthewindlass,pulley,inclinedplane,screw,catapultforthrowingmissilesinwarfare,andwaterscrewformovingwater.Later,thewaterwheelwasdevelopedforpower,whichwastrans-mittedbywoodengears.Manytechnologicalinnovationssuchasprintingwithwoodblocksstartingaround740andgunpowderaboutacenturylater,originatedinChina.The1800ssawanexplosionintechnology.Amongthemajoradvancesduringthiscenturywerewidespreaduseofsteampower,steam-poweredrailroads,thetelegraph,telephone,electricityasapowersource,textiles,theuseofironandsteelinbuildingandbridgeconstruction,cement,photography,andtheinventionoftheinternalcombustionengine,whichrevolutionizedtransportationinthefollowingcentury.Sinceabout1900,advancingtechnologyhasbeencharacterizedbyvastlyincreasedusesofenergy;greatlyincreasedspeedinmanufacturingprocesses,informationtransfer,computation,transportation,andcommunication;automatedcontrol;avastnewvarietyofchemicals;newandimprovedmaterialsfornew