Chap3

31999CRCPressLLCTheInfluenceofCommandandControlRegulationsCONTENTSIntroductionINTRODUCTIONTheUnitedStateshasemployedasystemofenvironmentalprotectionthroughthepassageoflawsenforcedbystateandfederalgovernmentagencies(seelisting).TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)isresponsibleforthefederalprogramandprovidesguidanceandfinancialassistancetothestates.Althoughotherapproacheshavebeenemployed,thissystemisprimarilybuiltonthecommandandcontrolapproach.Thatis,specificconditionsorquantitativerestrictionsmustbemetoractioncanbetakenagainsttheviolatorsuchastheassessmentofpenalties.Anothertermforcommandandcontrolmightbespecificationstandardasopposedtoaperformance-orientedstandarddesignedtoprovideflexibilityinitsimplementation.Uponpassageofproposedlegislationdevelopedbycongressionalcommitteesandsubcommittees,theimplementingregulationsmustbedevelopedbytheagency(Figure2).Figure2DevelopmentofU.S.EnvironmentalRegulationsandPolicyChap3.fmPage17Sunday,August19,20016:17PM1999CRCPressLLCUnlikeinternationalenvironmentallawinwhichindividualsarenotrecognized(althoughrecentdecisionsbytheInternationalCourtofJusticeindicatethisischanging),regulatoryactionbytheEPArequirespublicnotificationaccomplishedthroughadvancedpublicationoftheactionintheFederalRegister.TheactionwillcallforpubliccommentandEPAmaysponsorworkshopsorpresentationsinvariouscitiesaroundthecountryregardingproposedregulationsasanothermeanstoinformthepublicandsolicitcommentandparticipation.Federalregulationsmayrequirestatestotakeaction,includingdevelopmentofstatelawsresultingintwoandsometimesthreelayersofcommandandcontroltyperequirementsthatarelengthyandcomplicated.Thethirdlayerisalocalmunicipalityorauthority.Underthisframework,lawshavebeendevelopedthatestablishnationallyacceptablepollutionlevelssuchasNationalAmbientAirQualityStandards(NAAQS)undertheCleanAirAct(CAA)andMaximumCon-taminantLevels(MCLs)undertheSafeDrinkingWaterAct(SDWA),bothdesignedtoprotecthumanhealth.Standardshavealsobeenestablishedthatspecifyrequiredtechnologyandpollutioncontrolreductions.Muchhasbeenaccomplishedtoreduceandcontrolpollutionthroughthesemechanisms.However,theverynatureofthesystemprecludesflexibilitybothincomplianceandenforcementoftheregulation.Inourfast-changingworld,today’sbusinessesmustbeallowedtodeterminethebestwaystoachievecomplianceorbetteryetmethodstomeetenvironmentalobjectives.Thecurrentsystemisfragmentedandduplicative.Notonlyaretheregulationsorganizedindependentfromoneanother,soaretheofficesand,consequently,thepeopletaskedwithimplementingtheseprograms.Federalandstateactsprovideforsubstantialcivilandcriminalpenaltiescreatinglitigationissuesthatpromoteafocusoncomplianceevenifnotaccomplishingimprovementstoenvironmentalquality.AsreportedbyDaviesandMazurek,pollutionlevelsintheUnitedStatesremainhighwhencomparedtootherindustrializednations.Substantialimprovementstoairqualityhavebeenrealizedunderthecurrentsystemforanumberofairpollutants;however,somestillremainelusiveandmaypresentarisktohumanhealthandtheenvironment.Wouldanintegratedapproachsuchasthatadoptedbynumerouscountries(Table1)provideamoreefficientsystembothintermsofcostandenvironmentalprotection?Itmaypromotetechnologicaladvancesinpollutioncontrol,providethenecessaryfocusonpollutionpreventionandminimization,andprovidethenecessaryprogramintegrationtoeliminateduplicationandfacilitateenvironmentalprotection.Inspiteoftheregulatorystructure,businesseshavebeguntorealizethatanEnvironmentalManagementSystemimprovesenvironmentalperformancewhileatthesametimeimprovingefficiency.Althoughtheneedforregulatoryrequirementsstillexists,nationalpoliciesshouldpromoteandsupportintegratedenvironmentalmanagementprogramsadoptedbybusinesses.Table1:IntegratedPollutionControlEuropeanUnionCouncilDirective96/61/EC,24September1996TheNetherlandsNationalEnvironmentalPolicyPlan,1989andEnvironmentalManagementActof1993NorwayNorwegianPollutionControlActSwedenEnvironmentalProtectionActUnitedKingdomEnvironmentalProtectionActof1990UnitedStates/MexicoIntegratedBorderEnvironmentalPlan(1992)Chap3.fmPage18Sunday,August19,20016:17PM1999CRCPressLLCREFERENCESPollutionControlintheUnitedStates,EvaluatingtheSystem,J.ClarenceDaviesandJanMazurek,ResourcesfortheFuture,1998.DirectEffectofEuropeanLawandtheRegulationofDangerousSubstances,ChristopherJ.M.Smith,GordonandBreachPublishers,1995.EnvironmentalChangeandInternationalLaw,editedbyEdithBrownWeiss,UnitedNationsUniversityPress,1992.InternationalEnvironmentalLawandPolicy,DavidHunter,JamesSalzman,DurwoodZaelke,FoundationPress,1998.EnvironmentalManagementSystems,JayG.MartinandGeraldJ.Edgley,GovernmentsInstitutes,1998.InternationalEnvironmentalAuditing,DavidD.Nelson,GovernmentInstitutes,1998.PrecautionaryLegalDutiesandPrinciplesofModernInternationalEnvironmentalLaw,HaroldHohmann,Graham&Trotman/MartinusNijhoff,1998.EnvironmentalManagementinEuropeanCompanies,SuccessStoriesandEvaluation,editedbyJobstConrad,GordonandBreachSciencePublishers,1998.PollutionControlintheUnitedStates,EvaluatingtheSystem,J.ClarenceDaviesandJanMazurek,ResourcesfortheFutur