电力部门控制二氧化硫排放的美国经验

Washington,DCSeptember2004TheUSExperienceControllingSO2EmissionsInthePowerSector电力部门控制二氧化硫排放的美国经验CleanAirInitiative-AsiaUrumqi,China2006PeterH.KokopeliU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyCleanAirMarketsDivisionHistory历史•Inthe1970s,theenvironmental,social,andeconomiceffectsofacidrainintheUnitedStatesbecameamajorconcerntopolicymakersandthepublic.ThisresultedinpassageoftheCleanAirActof1970andsubsequentamendmentsin1977and1990.•上世纪七十年代，酸雨在美国的环境、社会和经济影响已经成为政策制订者和民众的主要关注对象。这导致了1970年“清洁空气法案”的通过及其1977年和1990年的修订。美国二氧化硫排放历史051015202530354019001905191019151920192519301935194019451950195519601965197019751980198519901995FuelCombustion-UtilitiesFuelCombustion-OtherIndustrialProcessingOn-roadNon-roadMiscellaneousMillionShortTons大萧条二战清洁空气法案无清洁空气法案酸雨项目•ResearcherslinkedacidraintoSO2emissions.By1990,twothirdsofSO2emissionsintheUSwerefromthepowersector(‘Utilities’)科学家认为酸雨的产生与二氧化硫排放有关。1990年以前，美国有三分之二的二氧化硫是电力部门排放的ThreeUSApproachestoControllingSO2Emissions美国控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施Standards-based标准限制•NAAQS(NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards)defineattainmentandprotecthumanhealthbysettingalimitonSO2concentrationnationwide.Newandmodifiedsourcesmustmeettechnologyandperformancestandardsdesignedtopreventanysignificantdeteriorationofairquality.ThesestandardssetmaximumemissionlevelsandmayspecifyBACT–‘BestAvailableControlTechnology’fornewunits.国家环境空气质量标准规定了全国的二氧化硫浓度限值来保护人民健康。新建和改建的污染源必须满足设计的技术和性能标准来防止空气质量的恶化。这些标准设定了最大排放水平，还可能指定新设备要使用的“最佳可用控制技术”。Voluntaryprograms自愿的项目•Governmentagenciesworkingwithindustrytoestablish政府和工业部门合作建立–DemandSideManagementprograms,toencourageconsumerstoreduceusageduringperiodsofpeakdemand.Electricutilitiesareextendingtime-of-usemeteringwiththreedifferentpricelevels(on-peak,off-peakandintermediate)fromcommercialcustomerstoresidential.‘Smartmeters’displayactualcosttotheuser.需求方管理项目，来鼓励消费者在需求高峰期减少用量。用电的高峰、低估和中间时期有不同的价格水平。–EnergyConservationmeasuressuchasmoreefficientappliances节能措施如节能设备–Renewableenergy.U.S.EPAisthefirstUSgovernmentagencytopurchase100%renewable.(Howmuch?300millionkWhperyearprimarilythroughthedevelopmentofwindfarms).可再生能源。美国环保署是第一个购买100％可再生能源的的美国政府机关（多少？3亿千瓦时每年，主要通过发展风能）ThreeUSApproachestoControllingSO2Emissions美国控制二氧化硫排放的主要措施Cap&Trade排污交易•TheAcidRainProgram(ARP)establishedanabsolutecaponSO2emissionsforaffectedsources.Itisnationalinscope,andthroughmarket-basedallowancetradingitallowsplantoperatorstoselecttheirowncompliancestrategy.TheEPAcurrentlyissues8.95MSO2allowancesannually.Allowancesareafinancialassetandmaybetradedonthemarket.Assuch,theyprovideanincentiveforindustrytoincreaseefficiency,innovate,andreduceemissionswithincertaintimeframes.TheU.S.EPACleanAirMarketsDivision(CAMD)operatestheARPCap&TradeprogramwhichisresponsibleforthebulkofSO2reductions.酸雨项目建立了一个所有二氧化硫污染源的排放总量的绝对限值。这是一个国家的总量，通过基于市场的排污交易，不同的企业可以选择自己的达标战略。美国环保署现在每年发放了890万吨的二氧化硫排污配额。排污配额是一种资产，可以在市场上进行交易。这样一来，在一定时间框架下，企业有动力提高他们的效率、创新和减排能力。•Althoughtheseapproachesdifferinphilosophyandimplementationtheyhavebeencomplementarytothegoalofloweringemissions.尽管这些措施的哲学和实施角度不同，他们都是实现减排目标的重要补充。分配职责ElectricityOtherComb.Ind.ProcessTransport二氧化硫排放1990•AcidRainProgram(ARP)unitsintheUSnowtotalapproximately3,600.美国现在约有3600个酸雨项目10吨10吨10吨5吨3吨7吨蓝色成本:$200/吨Green成本:$160/吨褐色成本:$240/吨消减量:5吨消减量:7吨消减量:3吨以每吨$160-$240转让2个配额限额与交易EssentialsofCap&Trade排污交易的核心内容•Setamandatoryemissionscapbasedonsoundscientificevidencethatthelimitwillhavethedesiredenvironmentaleffect.足够的科学证据说明限制可以取得预期的环境收益，基于此，设定强制性的排放总量限值•EstablishCap&Tradeasanalternativetotraditionalregulation—notsimplyatradingfeatureaddedtoexistingregulation.排污交易是传统法规的一个补充，不是简单地把交易的特点赋予现有的法规•Ensurethatasignificantnumberofsourceswillparticipatesufficienttocreateaviableallowancemarket.保证有足够的污染源参与交易来建立一个有效的排污交易市场•Allocateallowancesinanamountnottoexceedthecap.给各个污染源分配允许的最大污染物排放量•Mandatethatsourcesmustholdallowancestocoverannualemissions.强制污染源必须保留排污配额来冲抵年排放量•Monitorandverifyemissions.Allrecords,includingallowanceholdingsmustbepubliclyavailable.对各个源的排放量进行监督，所有记录必须公开•Enforceruleswithautomaticpenalties.•Assessresultsonaconsistentbasistoevaluatehowtheprogramisworkingovertime.持续评价项目实施的效果二氧化硫配额市场活跃PrivateSO2AllowanceTransfers051015202530199419951996199719981999200020012002MillionAllowancesEconomicallyDistinctOrgsEconomicallyIndistinctOrgsUncategorized$0$200$400$600$800$1,000$1,200$1,400$1,600$1,8001994199519961997199819992000200120022003200420052006YearPrice•TheSO2allowancemarketrespondstoavarietyofsignals.Althoughthehistoricaltrendwasstable(inthe$200pertonrange)foradecade,pricesinthelastyearhaveclimbedinanticipationoflowercaps.很多信号影响二氧化硫排污交易市场。尽管2004年以前的十年里二氧化硫配额市场稳定，但由于预期二氧化硫排放总量限值要下降，去年的二氧化硫排污配额的价格迅速上升。Currentmarketpriceon15Sept,2006SO2AllowancePrice(perton)Monitoring&ReportingEmissions排污的监测和报告•MonitoringofemissionsisthefoundationofaCap&Tradeprogram.ContinuousEmissionsMonitors(CEMS)areusedby36%ofARPunitsbutaccountfor96%oftotalSO2emissions.排污监测是实行排污交易的基础。有36％的酸雨项目使用连续排污监测器，但是他们占二氧化硫排放总量的96％。•U.S.EPAdoesnotcertifyCEMs,rather,itestablishesperformancestandardsforqualitycontrolandaccuracy.Thisisintendedtoencourageinnovationamongequipmentmanufacturers.