A-theory-of-human-motivation(人类动机论)

ATheoryofHumanMotivationA.H.Maslow(1943)OriginallyPublishedinPsychologicalReview,50,370-396.PostedAugust2000I.INTRODUCTIONInapreviouspaper(13)variouspropositionswerepresentedwhichwouldhavetobeincludedinanytheoryofhumanmotivationthatcouldlayclaimtobeingdefinitive.Theseconclusionsmaybebrieflysummarizedasfollows:1.Theintegratedwholenessoftheorganismmustbeoneofthefoundationstonesofmotivationtheory.2.Thehungerdrive(oranyotherphysiologicaldrive)wasrejectedasacenteringpointormodelforadefinitivetheoryofmotivation.Anydrivethatissomaticallybasedandlocalizablewasshowntobeatypicalratherthantypicalinhumanmotivation.3.Suchatheoryshouldstressandcenteritselfuponultimateorbasicgoalsratherthanpartialorsuperficialones,uponendsratherthanmeanstotheseends.Suchastresswouldimplyamorecentralplaceforunconsciousthanforconsciousmotivations.4.Thereareusuallyavailablevariousculturalpathstothesamegoal.Thereforeconscious,specific,local-culturaldesiresarenotasfundamentalinmotivationtheoryasthemorebasic,unconsciousgoals.5.Anymotivatedbehavior,eitherpreparatoryorconsummatory,mustbeunderstoodtobeachannelthroughwhichmanybasicneedsmaybesimultaneouslyexpressedorsatisfied.Typicallyanacthasmorethanonemotivation.6.Practicallyallorganismicstatesaretobeunderstoodasmotivatedandasmotivating.7.Humanneedsarrangethemselvesinhierarchiesofpre-potency.Thatistosay,theappearanceofoneneedusuallyrestsonthepriorsatisfactionofanother,morepre-potentneed.Manisaperpetuallywantinganimal.Alsononeedordrivecanbetreatedasifitwereisolatedordiscrete;everydriveisrelatedtothestateofsatisfactionordissatisfactionofotherdrives.8.Listsofdriveswillgetusnowhereforvarioustheoreticalandpracticalreasons.Furthermoreanyclassificationofmotivationsmustdealwiththeproblemoflevelsofspecificityorgeneralizationthemotivestobeclassified.9.Classificationsofmotivationsmustbebasedupongoalsratherthanuponinstigatingdrivesormotivatedbehavior.10.Motivationtheoryshouldbehuman-centeredratherthananimal-centered.11.Thesituationorthefieldinwhichtheorganismreactsmustbetakenintoaccountbutthefieldalonecanrarelyserveasanexclusiveexplanationforbehavior.Furthermorethefielditselfmustbeinterpretedintermsoftheorganism.Fieldtheorycannotbeasubstituteformotivationtheory.12.Notonlytheintegrationoftheorganismmustbetakenintoaccount,butalsothepossibilityofisolated,specific,partialorsegmentalreactions.Ithassincebecomenecessarytoaddtotheseanotheraffirmation.13.Motivationtheoryisnotsynonymouswithbehaviortheory.Themotivationsareonlyoneclassofdeterminantsofbehavior.Whilebehaviorisalmostalwaysmotivated,itisalsoalmostalwaysbiologically,culturallyandsituationallydeterminedaswell.Thepresentpaperisanattempttoformulateapositivetheoryofmotivationwhichwillsatisfythesetheoreticaldemandsandatthesametimeconformtotheknownfacts,clinicalandobservationalaswellasexperimental.Itderivesmostdirectly,however,fromclinicalexperience.Thistheoryis,Ithink,inthefunctionalisttraditionofJamesandDewey,andisfusedwiththeholismofWertheimer(19),Goldstein(6),andGestaltPsychology,andwiththedynamicismofFreud(4)andAdler(1).Thisfusionorsynthesismayarbitrarilybecalleda'general-dynamic'theory.Itisfareasiertoperceiveandtocriticizetheaspectsinmotivationtheorythantoremedythem.Mostlythisisbecauseoftheveryseriouslackofsounddatainthisarea.Iconceivethislackofsoundfactstobedueprimarilytotheabsenceofavalidtheoryofmotivation.Thepresenttheorythenmustbeconsideredtobeasuggestedprogramorframeworkforfutureresearchandmuststandorfall,notsomuchonfactsavailableorevidencepresented,asuponresearchestobedone,researchessuggestedperhaps,bythequestionsraisedinthispaper.[p.372]II.THEBASICNEEDSThe'physiological'needs.--Theneedsthatareusuallytakenasthestartingpointformotivationtheoryaretheso-calledphysiologicaldrives.Tworecentlinesofresearchmakeitnecessarytoreviseourcustomarynotionsabouttheseneeds,first,thedevelopmentoftheconceptofhomeostasis,andsecond,thefindingthatappetites(preferentialchoicesamongfoods)areafairlyefficientindicationofactualneedsorlacksinthebody.Homeostasisreferstothebody'sautomaticeffortstomaintainaconstant,normalstateofthebloodstream.Cannon(2)hasdescribedthisprocessfor(1)thewatercontentoftheblood,(2)saltcontent,(3)sugarcontent,(4)proteincontent,(5)fatcontent,(6)calciumcontent,(7)oxygencontent,(8)constanthydrogen-ionlevel(acid-basebalance)and(9)constanttemperatureoftheblood.Obviouslythislistcanbeextendedtoincludeotherminerals,thehormones,vitamins,etc.Younginarecentarticle(21)hassummarizedtheworkonappetiteinitsrelationtobodyneeds.Ifthebodylackssomechemical,theindividualwilltendtodevelopaspecificappetiteorpartialhungerforthatfoodelement.Thusitseemsimpossibleaswellasuselesstomakeanylistoffundamentalphysiologicalneedsfortheycancometoalmostanynumberonemightwish,dependingonthedegreeofspecificityofdescription.Wecannotidentifyallphysiologicalneedsashomeostatic.Thatsexualdesire,sleepiness,sheeractivityandmaternalbehaviorinanimals,arehomeostatic,hasnotyetbeendemonstrated.Furthermore,thislistwouldnotincludethevarioussensorypleasures(tastes,smells,tickling,stroking)whichareprobablyphysiol