专业英语期末考试

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第1页共6页—南昌大学考试试卷—【适用时间:2014~2015学年第一学期试卷类型:[A]卷】教师填写栏课程编号:Z6020X0013课程名称:专业外语开课学院:考试形式:适用班级:说明:题号一二三四五六七八九十总分累分人签名题分100得分考生填写栏考生姓名:考生学号:所属学院:所属班级:所属专业:单词总数:第2页共6页Pricing,Water水的价值AnacquaintanceoncesaidthateverywaterfaucetinNewYorkCityleaks.Shewasexaggerating,ofcourse,butherpointwasthatNewYorkersdonottakethetimeorspendthemoneytorepairleaks.Why?Mostresidentsofthecitypayaflatfeefortheirwater.Foraafixedmonthlycharge,residentscanuseasmuchwaterastheywant.Marginalcostiszero.zero.Hence,thewastedwatercoststhemnothing,asidefromtheannoyanceoflisteningtothedrip.Butwhyshouldanyoneworryaboutthecostofwater?一位熟人曾说;纽约的每一个水龙头都漏水。当然她有些夸张,但是她想说的重点是纽约人不花费时间或金钱去修。为什么呢?因为这个城市的大部分居民付的公寓费用中包含了水费。每月付固定的费用,居民可以无限量用水。边际成本为零。因此,除了厌烦听滴水声之外,浪费的水不花他们一分钱。Thefigureshowsrecentpricesofanadditional1,000gallonspermonthinseveralU.S.citiesin2001,rangingfrom$1.25tonearly$3.00.(Waterratesinothercountriesoftenareconsiderablyhigher.)FormostAmericans,thisisaverysmallpartoftheirbudgets.Evenso,so,studyafterstudyhasshownthatmostwateruserswillindeedrespondtoahigherpricebyfixingleaks,usingabroominsteadofahosetocleanthedriveway,andotherwiseconservingwater.Imposingaquantitycharge,orraisingit,forcesuserstorethink,evenifonlyinformally,theirmarginalbenefit/marginalcostcomputationsandadjustconsumptionaccordingly.这份数据显示2001年在美国的若干个城市每个月额外1000加仑水的价格的范围在1.25美元到接近3美元。(其他城市的水费经常高出很多。)对于大多数美国人来说,这只是他们预算的一小部分。即便如此,一项又一项的研究显示了大多数用户真的将付更多的钱去修水龙头,用扫帚而不是水管清理车道,亦或是储水。计量收费,或是提高价格,会使用户重新思考他们的边际效益或是边际成本,并相应地调整消费,即使只是随便想想。WhatisWater'sTrueCost?什么是水的实际成本?Evenwhenwaterutilitiesuseaquantitychargeinsteadofafixedfee,theyoftensetthequantitychargetoolow.Typicalpublicwaterutilitiesdesigntheirratestocoverout-of-pocketcosts,butsuchcostsoftenfallshortofthetrueeconomicvalueofextractinganddistributingwater.即便用水采用计量收费取代了固定费用,他们经常把收费设得很低。通常公共用水设置的价格会覆盖实付第3页共6页成本,但是这样的成本经常达不到取水和运水的实际经济效益。Subsidies.资助First,governmentsoftensubsidizewaterinfrastructure.Developersoftenmustcontributeready-to-usewatersystemstotheutility.Thesesubsidiesdonotcomedirectlyfromtheutilitycompanyandhencedonotshowupintheiraccountingrecords.首先,政府经常资助水利基层建设。开发者必须经常为公共设施贡献现成的供水系统。这些资助不是直接来源于公共事业公司,因此并不是要炫耀他们的会计记录。CapitalEquipment.资本设备(固定设备)Second,capitalequipment—pumps,watermains,buildings,andsoon—isamajorelementoftotalwatercostandtendstolastforseveraldecades.Replacingawatermainbuilt,forexample,40yearsagowouldcostalmostsixtimestheoriginalcostbecauseofinflationalone.Yetfewifanyutilitiesupdatethevalueofagingcapitalequipmentwhentheyaddupcosts.其次,在过去的几十年中固定设备是自来水成本的关键因素-----水泵、自来水总管道、建筑物等等,例如由于通货膨胀本身导致更换修建主管道的成本是四十年前的六倍,然而当固定成本叠加的时,没有任何实用方法更新设备老化ScarcityValue.货缺价值Third,waterinthegroundorinastreamisvaluablebecauseitisscarce.TherighttodivertwaterfromastreamortopumpitfromanaquiferisanassetofgrowingvaluetoutilitycompaniesButagainisoftenignoredinstandardaccountingpractice.Onestudyestimatedscarcityvaluetobeatleastaslargeasallotherconventionallyreckonedcoststogether.Similarly,anyenvironmentalcostsincurredinprovidingpublicwatersuppliesshouldbeaddedtowaterrates.最后,地表水和小溪非常有价值在于他们稀缺,南水北调工程的从流或用水泵引水的权利是一项资产的价值增长给公共事业公司,但又常常被忽略的标准会计实务。一项研究估计要在一起至少和其他常规的计算费用一样大的稀缺价值。同样地,在提供公共供水系统的任何环境的费用应添加到水费。PricingasaConservationIncentive作为保护激励定价Forthereasonsoutlinedabove,waterrateschedulesbasedontheutility'sout-of-pocketcostsleaveconsumerspayinglessthantheyshould.Andsinceconsumerspaytoolittle,theyusetoomuch.基于上面列举的原因,基于实用程序的自付费用的水率计划使得消费者支付的少于他们应该交的。而且因为消费者支付太少,他们使用太多。However,anincreasingnumberofwaterutilitieshaverecognizedthepotentialofpricingtoprovideanincentivefortheircustomerstoconservewater.Some(Seattle,WashingtonandsouthernCalifornia,forexample)haverefinedthenotion,charginghigherratesduringdroughtsorindryseasonsorforunexpectedlylargequantities.然而,越来越多的自来水公司已经承认定价为他们的客户可以节约用水提供了一个潜在诱因,一些地方自第4页共6页来水公司像华盛顿州、西雅图市和南部的加利福尼亚州重新定价,在干旱期间或在干旱季节或没有大批量订货收取更高利率Butifwaterispricedatitsfulleconomiccost,whataboutthepoor?Severalmajorcitieshavetakenatleasttentativestepstowardestablishingwhatiscalledaninclined-blockwaterrateschedule,asshownhere:但是但如果水价在其充分的经济成本,穷人呢?几个主要城市已采取了至少初步步骤建立阶梯价格的水率附表,如下所示:Ideally,customersunderthissystemwouldpayalowrateforthefirstfewthousandgallonsused,buttheratewouldriseuntiltheypaythefullmarginalcostforthelastthousandgallons.Thecriterionofmarginalbenefitsequalsmarginalcostswouldbemet,andyeteventhepoorestcouldaffordatleastabasicamount.理想情况下,在这个阶梯价格体系下的客户只需支付低速率就可以使用几千加仑水,但速率会上升,直到他们为最后几千加支付全部的全边际成本,标准的边际效益的等于边际费用,然而,让即使最穷的用户能至少一个基本自来水的使用量。TrendingTowardDemandManagement.需求管理的趋势Onaverage,Americansusemorethan1,000gallonsofwaterperday.Theamountnecessarytosustainlifeprocessesisquitesmall,perhapsafewgallonsperday.Ofthedifference,howmuchisreallyneededforbathing,laundry,housecleaning,carwashing,lawnandgardencare,fillingtheswimmingpool,andsoon?Clearly,ifconsumersarepresentedwiththerightincentive,theycanconserveonwateruse.平均来看,美国人每天使用超过1000加仑的水,维持生命过程所需量很小,也许几加仑每一天,区别在于,多少是真正用于沐浴、洗衣、打扫房间、洗车、草坪和花园的护理,灌装游泳池,等等?显然,如果现在适当的激励消费者,他们就可以节约用水。Thisarticlehasconsideredmainlyresidentialwaterusers,butsimilarconsiderationsapplytobusinessesandfarmsthatusewater.Farmers,f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