Language-and-Cognition语言与认知

ChapterSixLanguageandCognition1.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessingMentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.Theformalapproach:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach:howlanguagestructures/processesconceptualcontent.2.PsycholinguisticsThestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Psychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition,languageproduction&comprehension.Languageacquisition(FirstandSecond)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionDisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognitionSixsubjectsofresearch2.1LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisitionreferstochildren’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,thatis,howchildrencometounderstandandtospeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.(1)HolophrasticstageHolophrase:single-wordsentences表句词,整句字One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.e.g.eye,bottle,car,eat,go,yes.(2)Two-wordstageChildrenannouncewhenobjectsappear,disappear:Papaaway.Pointoutproperties,owners:Alldry./ourcarComment:Allmessy.Rejectandrequest:Morecereal.(3)Three-wordstageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.(4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageEmbedoneconstituentinsideanotherGivedoggiepaper.Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords.Afullrangeofsentencetypes:questions,relativeclauses,negations,conjunctions,andpassives.2.2LanguageComprehensionDecodingprocessWordrecognitionWordrecognitionistheinitialandbasicstageoftextcomprehension.Worddeterminesthesentencemeaningandstructure.Werecognizedtheambiguousmeaningofawordbyitsenvironments.Alsowepresumeasentencestructurebyaword.E.g.whenweseearrive,weknowitdoesnotprecedeanoundirectly.Andwhenwesee“放”，weknowanounorprepositionphrasewillfollow.Thatistosay,wehaveapresumedmeaningandstructureatthesightofaword.Cohortmodel(集群模型)byMarslen-Wilson&Welsh:thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Oneevidenceforcohorttheoryisthatawordwithouttheinitialletterismoredifficulttorecognizethanonewithoutthefinalletter.Interactivemodel(交互模型):Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,top-downinfluenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.WordrecognitionRacemodel（竞争模型）:Pre-lexicalroute（前词路径）:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal.e.g.stove[stəuv]Lexicalroute（词汇路径）:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessed.e.g.loveComprehensionofsentencesSerialmodel:（串行模型）Thesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Parallelmodel:（并行模型）Thecomprehensionissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextualknowledge.Weuseseveralseparatebutsimultaneousprocesseswhenwetrytounderstandlanguage.StructuralfactorsincomprehensionMinimalattachmenttheory:（最小配属理论）structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Peopleinitiallyconstructthesimplestsyntacticstructurewheninterpretingasentence.Itwouldbeinefficientforpeopletoassumeallthepossiblestructuresofawordaftertheyseeorhearit.E.g.thewillbefollowedbyanounphrase,orapossessivephrasemodifyingthesubject.Butpeopleusuallyassumethesimplestone.Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.GARDENPATHsentencesGardenpathsentencesrefertothesentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.E.g.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.Ihaveforgottentheeventhappenedatthattime.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel(共振模型):informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.2.3LanguageProductionEncodingprocessAccesstowordsWordsareplannedinseveralprocessingsteps.Eachstepgeneratesaspecifictypeofrepresentation,andinformationistransmittedbetweenrepresentationsviathespreadingofactivation.Thefirststep,calledconceptualization,isdecidingwhatnotiontoexpress.Forinstance,aspeakercansay“ababy”,“Hergrandson”,orsimply“he”torefertoasmallperson.AccesstowordsThenextstepistoselectawordthatcorrespondstothechosenconcept.Thespeakerselectsasyntacticwordunitwhichspecifiesthesyntacticclassandadditionalsyntacticinformation(suchasvi./vt.).Selectingasyntacticwordunitisacompetitiveprocess.Severalunitsmaybeactivatedatoncebecauseseveralconceptsaremoreorlesssuitabletoexpressthemessage.AccesstowordsThefollowingprocessingstep,morpho-phonologicalencoding,beginswiththeretrievalofthemorphemescorrespondingtotheselectedword.Forthewordwalked,twomorphemesmustberetrieved.Peoplesometimesmakeerrorssuchas“putthetablesontheplate”,wherestemsexchangewhileaffixesremaininplace.GenerationofsentencesThefirststepisagainconceptualpreparation--decidingwhattosay.Thespeakersprepareutterancesincrementally.Thetypicalconceptualplanningunit:clauseTwodistinctsetsofprocessesareinvolvedingener