语言学各部分ppt

ChapterTwoSpeechSoundsAshumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.1.Howspeechsoundsaremade1.1SpeechorgansPositionofthevocalfolds:voicelessPositionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)Positionofthevocalfolds:glottalstop1.2TheIPAIn1886,thePhoneticTeachers’AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)in1897.OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(Revisedto2005)2.ConsonantsandvowelsConsonantsareproduced‘byaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction’.Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutsuch‘stricture’sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.2.1ConsonantsIntheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.•Stop(orPlosive)–Oral&Nasal•Fricative•(Median)Approximant•Lateral(Approximant)•Trill•TaporFlap•AffricateTheplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:BilabialLabiodentalDentalAlveolarPostalveolarRetroflexPalatalVelarUvularPharyngealGlottal2.2VowelsCardinalVowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Jones:AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:EnglishTheproblematicareaisthattheinitialsoundinhotgiveslittleturbulence,dependingonhowforcefullyitissaid,andinyetandwettheinitialsegmentsareobviouslyvowels.Togetoutofthisproblem,theusualsolutionistosaythatthesesegmentsareneithervowelsnorconsonantsbutmidwaybetweenthetwocategories.Forthispurpose,theterm‘semi-vowel’isoftenused.Languagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs.Adoublemovementproducesatriphthong,whichis‘aglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption’.Theyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwa[ə],foundinEnglishwordslikewire[waɪə]andtower[taʊə].2.3ThesoundsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP)GeneralAmerican(GA)EnglishconsonantsTheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricativeEnglishvowelsThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements