6.Pragmatics--简明英语语言学-戴炜栋

Chapter6PragmaticsSomebasicnotionsDefinitionofpragmaticsPragmaticsvs.SemanticsContextSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningSpeechacttheoryAustin’smodelofspeechactsSearle’sclassificationofspeechactsPrincipleofconversationContentsSomebasicnotions1.DefinitionofpragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.i.e.howspeakersuselanguageappropriatelyandeffectivelyinaccordancewithagivencontext.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasthestudyofhowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.2.Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemanticsPragmaticsDefinitionstudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.studyofhowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Understandingofmeaninginherentpropertyoflanguage,comingfrompurelylinguisticknowledgerealizedinthecourseofcommunication,predictedbylinguisticandcontextualknowledgeDistinctionsbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsWhatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.SemanticsPragmaticsObjectofstudySentencemeaningindependentofcontext;intra-linguisticrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandentitiesintheworld.utterancemeaningdependentofcontext;relationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Goalofstudyestablishingtherelationshipsbetweenverbaldescriptionsandstatesofaffairsintheworldastrueornot,regardlessofwhoproducesthatdescription.figuringoutthespeakers’intendedmeaning,theirassumptions,theirpurposesandgoals,andthekindofactionstheyareperformingwhentheyspeak.3.ContextContextisregardedasconstitutedbyallkindsofknowledgeassumedtobesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.e.g.a.JohnandCeciliaarewatchingamovieintheopenair.Afterawhile,Ceciliasays:It’scoldinhere.b.Thepatientislyinginbedwhenthenursecomesin.thewindowisopen.Thepatientsays:It’scoldinhere.Withincontext,thetwoutteranceshavedifferentmeanings.In(a),Ceciliamostprobablysuggests,“let’sleavehereandfindawarmerplace”,whilein(b),thepatientissuggestingtothenurse:“Closethewindowplease”.knowledgeaboutthelanguagelinguisticcontextknowledgeaboutthelinguisticenvironmentcommonsensebackgroundknowledgesocial-culturalconventionsspeechconventionstime&spaceofthecommunicationsubjectofcommunicationformalityofcommunicationrelationshipofparticipantsmutualknowledgecontextofsituationextra-linguisticcontextContext4.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningSentencemeaningisoftenstudiedastheabstract,decontextualized,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication陈述.Utterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orinacontext.Forexample:ThebagI’mcarryingisabitheavy.Grammaticalanalysis:subject,linkverb,complementSemanticanalysis:one-placepredicationBag(Beingheavy)Pragmaticanalysis:①astraightforwardstatementtellingthehearerhisbagisheavy.②anindirect,politerequestaskingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.③declining谢绝someone’srequestforhelp.Speechacttheory言语行为理论1.Austin’smodelofspeechactsSpeechActTheorywasproposedbyJohnAustinandfurtherdevelopedbyJohnSearle.Theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethingsbutto“dothings”,toperformacts.Actionsperformedthroughutterancesaregenerallycalledspeechacts.speechactsinclude:statement,pledge保证,question,order,expressinggratitude,apology,congratulation,complaint,etc.Forexample:•Shallwechangeanotherroom?”(suggestion)•HowIenvyhim!(envy,jealousy)•There’saspiderinyourhair.(warning)•I’vegotagun.(threatening)•Ineedthesalt.(requesting)AccordingtoAustin,sentencescanbesubdividedintotwocategories.1.Constatives(叙述话语)Asentenceiscapableofexpressingacompletethoughtormeaning.Wecanjudgewhetherthesentenceistrueornotbyitsmeaning.“Theearthisflat.”(=aproposition+astatement)2.Performatives(行为话语)Peopleusesentences(utterance)todothings.Wecanjudgewhetheraperformativeisvalidornotbyfelicity(措辞恰当).“I’llcometodinnertomorrow.”(=aproposition+apromise)Exampleofinfelicity:anemployee:“Inominateyouthepresident/premier”“Iordertheearthtostopmoving.”AccordingtoAustinthreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously.Theyare:Locutionaryact（言内行为）Illocutionaryact（言外行为）Perlocutionaryact（言后行为）Locutionaryact:theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Illocutionaryact:theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedwhilesayingsomething.Perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceoforthechangebroughtbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactisthathehasutteredallthewords.Theillocutionaryactisthathehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance:Thehearergetsthespeaker’smessageandseesthatthesp