语用学预设Summary-Presupposition

Presupposition•8.1WhatisPresupposition?•8.2Pre-pragmaticStudiesofPresupposition•8.2.1Philosophers’StudiesofPresupposition•8.2.2Semanticists’StudiesofPresupposition•8.3PragmaticInterpretationsofPresupposition•8.4PresuppositionTriggers•8.5PropertiesofPresupposition•8.5.1ConstancyunderNegation•8.5.2Defeasibility•8.5.3TheProjectionProblem•8.6Analyses•8.6.1TheFiltering-SatisfactionAnalysis•8.6.2TheCancellationAnalysis•8.6.3TheAccommodationAnalysis•8.7Summary8.1WhatisPresupposition?•Incommunicationthereisalwayssomethingthatthespeakerdoesnotassertexplicitly.•Tworeasons:(a)Socialreason---itissociallyinconvenientorinappropriateforhimtodoso.Speakerchoosestouseindirectlanguage.•WehavediscussedthispointinChapter4.(b)Itisnotnecessaryforhimtodoso.•WewilldiscussinthisChapter.(1)Ted’spuppyisseriouslyill.•asserted:thehealthconditionofTed’spet.•Unasserted:a)ThereisamancalledTed.b)Tedhasapuppy.•Hedoessobecauseheassumesthattheinformationisalreadyknowntothehearer.(2)TheSmithsregrethavingboughtahousesoclosetotheairport.•Tell:Smiths’sfeelingabouthavingboughtahousesoclosetotheairport.•Notnecessarytotell:Smithshaveboughtahouseclosetotheairport.•Presuppositioncanbeinformallydefinedasaninferenceorpropositionwhosetruthistakenforgrantedintheutteranceofasentence.Itsmainfunctionistoactasapreconditionofsomesortfortheappropriateuseofthatsentence.Thisbackgroundassumptionwillremaininforcewhenthesentencethatcontainsitisnegated.•Presupposition:issomethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutterance.•Soitisspeakers,notsentences,thathavepresuppositions.8.2Pre-pragmaticstudiesofpresupposition8.2.1Philosophers’studiesofpresupposition•Studiesofpresuppositionoriginatedwiththephilosophers,whoseinterestinpresuppositionstemmedfromtheirdebateonthenatureofreference（所指）andreferringexpressions（所指词语）.•ThefirstphilosopherFrege(German):“ifanythingisassertedthereisalwaysanobviouspresuppositionthatthesimpleorcompoundpropernamesusedhaveareference.”（声言中的专用名词必有所指）•Heusedthefollowingsentencesasanexample:(1)Keplerdiedinmisery.•ThepropernameKeplermustrefertoanentitythatexistsintheobjectiveworld.Itundoubtedlypresupposes(2)Keplerexisted.(3)Keplerdidnotdieinmisery.•Although(1)and(3)arecontradictory,theyhavethesamepresupposition(2)Theconclusionscanbesummarizedintothefollowingpropositions:(a)Referringphrasesandtemporalclauses(forexample)carrypresuppositionstotheeffectthattheydoinfactrefer.(b)Asentenceanditsnegativecounterpartsharethesamesetofpresupposition.(c)Inorderforanassertionorasentencetobeeithertrueorfalse,itspresuppositionsmustbetrueorsatisfied.8.2.2Semanticists’studiesofpresupposition•InSemanticstudies,presuppositionisregardedasasenserelationbetweenpropositionslikeentailment,whichisarelationofmeaninginclusion:theinferablemeaningisincludedintheoriginalproposition.Forexample:•“Johnhasfivecows”•entails:“Johnhas(5)cows.”Presupposition&entailment:•Common---theybothbelongtotheaspectofmeaningofasentencewhichisnotexplicitlyexpressedbutisinferred.•Difference---semanticistsproposedtheso-called“negationtest.”•Wecanuse“negationtest”totellentailmentfrompresupposition.(4)Thatpersonisabachelor.entails:thatpersonisaman.•IfsentenceAentailssentenceB,thefollowingtwoconditionsmustbemet:a)IfAistrue,Bisalsotrue.b)IfAisnottrue,Bmaybetrueoritmaybefalse.(5)Johnismarried.presupposes(6)ApersonbythenameofJohnexists.•IfsentenceApresupposessentenceB,thefollowingtwoconditionsmustbemet:a)IfAistrue,Bisalsotrue.b)IfAisnottrue,Bisstilltrue.•Thedifferencebetweenentailmentandpresupposition:intermsoftruthconditions.8.3PragmaticInterpretationsofPresupposition8.3.1Definition•Presuppositionisthebackgroundknowledgesharedbythetwopartiesofcommunication.•Itisthisbackgroundknowledgethatmakesitpossibleforthespeakertosaywhathesaystothehearer,feelingcertainatthesametimethatitwillbecorrectlyunderstoodbythehearer.•Anditisalsothisbackgroundknowledgethatmakesitpossibleforthehearertocorrectlyunderstandwhatthespeakersaystohim.8.3.2Threeinterpretationofpresupposition•Firstly,Onetookpresuppositionstobetheassumptionsaboutthecontextofspeechmadebyspeaker.Thespeaker,whenmakinganutterance,musthavecertainassumptionaboutthecontext.Forexample,a.SamrealizesthatIrvisaMartian.b.SamdoesnotrealizethatIrvisaMartian.c.IrvisaMartian.•Anotherinterpretationtookpresuppositiontobethefelicityconditionsthatmustbesatisfiedinperformingaspeechact,orconditionstobemetforanutterancetobesociallyappropriate.Forexample,a.JohnaccusedHarryofwritingtheletter.b.Therewassomethingblameworthyabouttheletter.c.JohncriticizedHarryforwritingtheletter.d.Harrywrotetheletter.•Thethirdinterpretationistotakepresuppositiontobetheknowledgesharedbythetwopartiesconcerned,orsimplybackgroundknowledge.Forexample,a.Theconcertlastnightwasmarvelous.b.Therewasaconcertlastnight.a.WasitMargaretthatpetermarried?b.Petermarriedsomeone.8.3.3Grundy’sopinionaboutpresuppositionHedividespresuppositionintoconventionalpresuppositionandbackgroundassumption.Forexample:TellMadonnaI’matlunch.•Inhisview,anyonewhosaysthishasaseriesofassumption,e.g.heisprettysurethatMadonnawillturnupsoo