人才服务公司中文化和气氛的跨层次影响（英语版）

JournalofOrganizationalBehaviorJ.Organiz.Behav.23,767–794(2002)PublishedonlineinWileyInterScience().DOI:10.1002/job.162Thecross-leveleffectsofcultureandclimateinhumanserviceteamsCHARLESGLISSON*ANDLAWRENCER.JAMESTheUniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,U.S.A.SummaryThistwo-levelstudyofchildwelfareandjuvenilejusticecasemanagementteamsaddressesconstruct,measurement,andcompositionissuesthatplaguemultilevelresearchonorganiza-tionalcultureandclimate.Veryfewempiricalstudieshaveexaminedbothcultureandclimatesimultaneously,andnonehaveprovidedevidencethatcultureandclimatearedistinctorsimi-larconstructs.Confirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA),within-groupconsistencyanalysis(rwg),between-groupdifferences(ICCandeta-squared),andhierarchicallinearmodels(HLM)ana-lysisprovideevidencethatclimateandcultureareseparateconstructsthatvarybyorganiza-tionalunit,andarerelatedtoworkattitudes,perceptions,andbehavior.Findingslinkteam-levelcultureandclimatetoindividual-leveljobsatisfactionandcommitment,perceptionsofservicequality,andturnover.Copyright#2002JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.IntroductionOrganizationalcultureandclimatearewidelyusedtermsthatreceiveconsiderableattentioninboththetradeandacademicpress.Theconceptshavebeenstudiedfordecadesinbusinessandindustrialorganizationsandtheirimportancetounderstandingorganizationalfunctioningisgenerallyaccepted.Morerecently,thecultureandclimateofgovernment,non-profit,andhumanserviceorganizationshavereceivedattention.Asinthebusiness,for-profitsector,cultureandclimatearethoughttobeuse-fulinexplaininghoworganizationsinfluencethebehavior,attitudes,andwell-beingofmembers,whysomeorganizationsaremoreinnovativeandquickertoadoptnewtechnologies,andwhysomeorga-nizationsaremoresuccessfulthanothers.Butseveralinterrelatedtrendsinthelastdecadebroadenedratherthannarrowedexistinggapsinourknowledgeofcultureandclimate(Ashkanasy,Wilderom,&Peterson,2000b).First,thepsycho-logical,quantitative,nomotheticapproachesusedtostudyclimateoverthelasthalf-centurywanedasinterestinanthropological,qualitative,andidiographicmethodstostudyingcultureincreased.Second,theindiscriminateuseoftheterms,climateandculture,reflectedinthetradeliterature’sReceived7January2002Revised30April2002Copyright#2002JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.Accepted3May2002*Correspondenceto:CharlesGlisson,Children’sMentalHealthServicesResearchCenter,TheUniversityofTennessee,128HensonHall,Knoxville,TN37996-3332,USA.E-mail:[e-mail]/grantsponsor:NationalInstituteofMentalHealth.Contract/grantnumber:R01-MH56563.inabilitytodistinguishbetweenthetwoconstructs,becameincreasinglywidespreadintheacademicliterature.Third,verylittledevelopmentoccurredinthemeasurementofcultureandclimateoverthelastdecade.Fourth,theoreticaldiscussionsofthetwoconstructsincreasedintheabsenceofempiricalevidence.Fifth,therewerealmostnoapplicationsofnew,multilevel,organizationalresearchmethodstothestudyofcultureandclimate.Theaimofthispaperistofocusattentiononclimateandcultureasdistinctconstructs,demonstratethevalueofquantitativestudiesofbothcultureandclimate,addresscriticalissuesinthemultilevelstudyofcultureandclimate,andassessrelationshipsthatlinkcultureandclimatetoattitudes,percep-tions,andbehaviorinhumanserviceteams.Itisonlywithinthelastdecadethatcultureandclimatehavebeendiscussedsimultaneouslyintheorganizationalliterature(Schneider,1990).Thisisimportantbecausesomewriterscontinuetousethetwotermsinterchangeably(e.g.,Schneider,2000),somewritersarguethatcultureandclimateoverlaporthatoneencompassestheother(e.g.,Denison,1996),andothersarguetheyaredistinct(e.g.,Schein,2000).Moreimportantly,mostofthearticlesthataddressbothcultureandclimateofferonlytheoreticaldiscussionsoftheconceptsorcasestudiesofsingleorganizationsandprovidenoempiricalevidencethattheconceptsareeitherdistinctiveorrelated(Barker,1994;Hoy,1990;Michela&Burke,2000;Payne,2000;Schneider,Gunnarson,&Niles-Jolly,1994;Tesluk,Farr,&Klein,1997;Virtanen,2000).Inrareinstanceswhenbothconstructshavebeenincludedinthesameempiricalstudy,noempiricalevidencehasbeenprovidedtosupportthesimilarityorthedistinctivenessofcultureandclimate(Johnson&McIntye,1998;Kirsh,2000).Thisstudyprovides:(1)operationaldefinitionsthatdistinguishbetweencultureandclimate;(2)empiricalevidencethatcultureandclimateareuniquefactors;(3)evidencethatcultureandclimateare‘shared’withinworkteamsandvarybetweenworkteams;and(4)estimatesofcross-levelrelation-shipsthatlinkteam-levelorganizationalclimateandculturetoindividual-levelworkattitudes,servicequality,andturnover.Webeginwithabriefdiscussionofcultureandclimateasorganizationalcon-ceptsandthedefinitionsthatguidetheirrolesinthepresentstudy.CultureandclimateasorganizationalconceptsThetradeliteratureonorganizationalcultureandclimatehasarelativelyshorthistorybutisimportantbecauseofthewidespreadinterestitgenerated.Muchofthebusinessworld’senthusiasmaboutthevalueofcultureandclimateoriginatedwithPetersandWaterman’s(1982)InSearchofExcellence.ByconductingcasestudiesofsomeofAmerica’smostsuccessfulbusinesses,PetersandWatermaninspiredanationwideinfatuationwith