4.syntax-2

Chapter4Syntax4.1Whatissyntax?4.2Categories4.3Phrasestructurerule4.4Phraseelements4.5Sentences(TheSrule)4.6TransformationsThewordSyntax,derivedfromGreek,ismadeupof2morphemes:{syn}and{tax}.Theformermeans“_________”,andthelatter“___________”.Inlinguistics,Syntax(句法学)isabranchthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Toputitsimple,itisthestudyoftheformationofsentences.togethertoarrangeSinceSentenceisregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecentreofgrammaticalstudy.Differentlinguisticstheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure.1.thetraditionalapproach(传统学派)；2.thestructureapproach(结构主义学派)；4.thefunctionalapproach(功能学派).3.thegenerativeapproach(生成学派)；AmericanlinguistsA.N.Chomsky(1928-)Thetraditionalapproachviewsasentenceasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformationthusinvolvesthestudyof…ofwords.1.number(数),gender(性),case(格)2.tense(时态),aspect(体),voice(语态)3.concord(一致性)andgovernment(支配关系)ThisapproachwasstartedbytheSwisslinguistSaussure,thefatherofmodernlinguistics,inthebeginningofthe20thcentury.AllthelinguistictheoriesafterSaussurearestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasisolatedbits.1.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelation横组合/纵聚合关系2.Immediateconstituent(直接成分)analysis3.Endocentric/exocentricconstructions向心/离心结构Syntagmatic(横组合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsthatoccurinasentence.Paradigmatic(纵聚合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceofastructure.Theboykickedtheball.Theballkickedtheboy.Theboytheballkicked.Theboychasedthedog.现场所有成分之间的关系；词必须满足一些句法和语义条件。现场成分与不在现场成分之间的关系；词只受句法的限制。womansoldiertiger……Immediateconstituentanalysis:Asentenceisnotonlylinearlyarranged,butalsohierarchically(层级)structured.Bloomfieldproposeditin1933.Theboykickedtheball.可用括号分析层级：词—词组—更大词组—句子；也可以用treestructure分层级。moreexpensiveclothesendocentricconstructions向心结构thebooksontheshelfexocentricconstructions离心结构ontheshelfhead/centerThisapproachoriginatedinthelate1950swiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky,whograduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar.Fromitsbirthtothepresentday,TGGrammarhasseenseveralstagesofdevelopment.DeepstructureandsurfacestructureLinguistswhoadoptthisapproachareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsoflinguisticstructuresandpatternstothefunctionsthatlanguageservesandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.1.PragueLinguisticCircle(布拉格语言学会):theme(主位)andrheme(述位)2.Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法)对句子进行功能分析：theme(主位):已知的信息或至少在给定环境中是明确的，说话者从它开始谈话。rheme(述位)：说话者陈述的有关，或者涉及，话语起点的内容。Fatherwrotethisletter.Thisletterwaswrotebyfather.从已知到未知是自然的，叫做客观顺序；在感情叙述中可把述位放在主位前面，叫做主观顺序。Theboykickedtheball.Theballwaskickedbytheboy.传统意义上的主语，承担了不同的功能。(1)动作者，“逻辑主语”，指行动的施动者；(2)情态主语，“语法主语”，是谓语表述的对象；(3)主位，“心理主语”，指信息的关注点；Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法)Halliday尽力将语言功能和结构联系起来，认为有三种普遍的语言功能（P11）（1）Ideationalfunction(概念功能)（2）Interpersonalfunction(人际功能)（3）Textualfunction(语篇功能)Category(P42)referstowhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchas.agroupoflinguisticitems1.word-levelcategories2.phrasecategories3.sentencesthegenerativeapproach(生成学派)asentence,anounphraseoraverbThetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc..Morespecifically,itreferstothecategoriesofthenouns,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc..syntaxcategories(句法范畴)(P43)classesandfunctionsthedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.(traditionally,partsofspeech)1.Howmanywordclassesdoyouknowabout?①traditionalcategories:n.,v.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,aux.,pronoun….②non-traditionalcategories:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语).2.Whataremajor/minorlexicalcategories?①Majorlexicalcategoriesareoftenassumedtobetheheads(中心语/中心成分)aroundwhichphrasesarebuilt:n.,v.,adj.andprep..②Minorlexicalcategoriesinclude:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语)andsoon.(P43)3.Whatarethecriteriatodetermineaword’scategories?①meaning;②inflection;③distribution.(P44,L1)①聪明的；学生②怀疑；羡慕doubted,envies(主要/次要词汇范畴)Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.(P44)③shoulders,waters,concernedshouldersone’swaydrinkthewatersconcernedoneselfwithPleasefinishEx.7onpage60.Syntacticunits1.definitionforphrasecategories2.twolevelsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).theprettygirlDetANNPwordlevelphraselevelP45,pleasedrawtreediagramsfortheother3phrases.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定词)asinNP,qulifiers(修饰语)asinVPanddegreewords(程度词)asinAPandPP.specifier+head+complement3.thestructureorelementsofphrasesthewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed标志语中心语补足语thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsthewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsSemantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofth