Chapter-5-Cooperation-and-implicature

Unit5CooperationandimplicatureWelookatathirdtypeofinferencing,implicature,andathowspeakersco-operateinaconversationtoachieveasharedmeaningforutterances.KeypointsConversationalimplicatureCharacteristicsofimplicatureCooperativeprincipleCooperativeprinciple•Wehaveassumedthatspeakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Withcooperativeendeavor,theycancommunicatesuccessfully.•Thecooperativeprinciple:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyourareengaged.Cooperativeprinciple(4maxims)•Quantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.•Quality1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.•RelationBerelevant.•Manner1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief.4.Beorderly.Hedges(限制语）•CPisnotprescriptivebutdescriptive.Therearecertainkindsofexpressionsspeakersusetomarkthattheymaybeindangerofnotfullyadheringtotheprinciples.Thesekindsofexpressionsarecalledhedges.•AsfarasIknow,they’remarried.So,tocutalongstoryshort,wegrabbedourstuffandran.Nottochangethesubject,butisthisrelatetothebudget?Thismaybeabitconfused,butIrememberbeinginacar.ViolationofCP•SometimesspeakermaynotabidebyCPorevenpurposelyviolateCP.Hemakesadistinctionbetween“quietlyviolatingamaximandopenlyfloutingamaxim.1.violate:Hemayquietlyandunostentatiouslyviolateamaxim.Hehasdeliberatelylied,suppliedinsufficientinformation,orbeenambiguous.Theseviolationsmighthampercommunicationbuttheydonotleadtoimplicature.ViolationofCP2.Flout:Itisobvioustotheheareratthetimeoftheutterancethatthespeakerhasdeliberatelyandquiteopenlyfailedtoobserveoneormoremaxims.Itleadstoimplicature.3.Optout:ThespeakermayoptoutfromtheoperationbothofthemaximandCP.Heisunwillingtocooperate.e.g.Ican’tsaymore.Ihavenoidea.Mylipsaresealed.Ihavenothingtosay.ViolationofCP4.Clash:Thespeakermaybefacedbyaclash.Hemaybeunabletoforexampletofulfillthefirstmaximofquantitywithoutviolatingthesecondmaximofquality.e.g.A:Whattimearetheygoingtotheairport?B:Sometimethismorning.(violatemaximofquantity,maintainmaximofquality)Conversationalimplicature•WhenspeakerfloutsthemaximsofCP,anadditionalmeaningisconveyed.Thisiscalledconversationalimplicature.Itisspeakerswhocommunicatemeaningviaimplicaturesanditislistenerswhorecognizethosecommunicatedmeaningsviainferences.Thesekindsofinferencesseemtobeless“straightforward”thanthosebasedonentailmentorpresuppositions.Generalizedimplicature•Noextraknowledgeisrequiredtointerprettheadditionalmeaningconveyed.e.g.Charlene:Ihopeyoubroughtthebreadandthecheese.(b&c)Dexter:Ah,Ibroughtthebread.(b+NOTc)Doobie:DidyouinviteBellaandCathy?(b&c)Mary:IinvitedBella.(b+NOTc)Scalarimplicatures•Whenanyforminascaleisasserted,thenegativeofallhigheronthescaleisimplicated.•Scaleofquantity:allmostmanysomefew•Scaleoffrequency:alwaysoftensometimes•Scaleofcoldness:freezingcoolcold•Scaleoflikelihood:certainlyprobablypossiblyParticularizedimplicatures•Specialcontextualknowledgeisneededtointerprettheadditionalconveyedmeaning.Itisthemostcontext-dependent.•e.g.Rick:Hey,comingtothewildpartytonight?Tom:Myparentsarevisiting.RickhastodrawonsomeassumedknowledgebothofthemcollegestudentshaveandmakeinferencebasedonmaximsofCP.Conventionalimplicatures•ConventionalimplicaturesarenotbasedonCPandtheydon’tdependonspecialcontextsfortheirinterpretation.Theyareassociatedwithspecificwordsandresultinadditionalconveyedmeaningswhenthosewordsareused.Entailmentisatypicalkindofconventionalimplicature.•but→contrasteven→contrarytoexpectationyet→different,oppositeandstaticinformation→inadditionorplusdynamicaction→andthen,indicatingsequencePresuppositionvs.implicatures•Doyounoticeadifferencebetweenpresuppositionsandimplicatureswhentheyarecancelled?(a)Cancellinganexistentialpresupposition:Mike:Whathappened?Annie:Steve’sdogwreckedthegarden---andinfactStevedoesn’thaveadog.(b)CancellingalexicalpresuppositionMike:What’sup?Annie:I’vestoppedsmoking---althoughI’veneversmoked.Presuppositionvs.implicatures(c)Cancellingascalarimplicature:Mike:What’shappenedtotheshampoo?Annie:Iusedmostofit---actually,Iusedallofit.(d)Cancellingaparticularizedimplicature:Mike:Areyoucomingtotheparty?Annie:Myparentsareintown---butIamcoming.Presuppositionvs.implicatures•Whenaspeakercancelsapresupposition,theresultsusuallysoundrathercontradictoryorincoherent.However,whenbothgeneralizedandparticularizedimplicaturesarecancelled,theresultsusuallysoundmuchmorenormal.Propertiesofconversationalimplicatures•Becauseimplicaturesarepartofwhatiscommunicatednotsaid,speakerscanalwaysdenythattheyintendtocommunicatesuchmeanings.Soimplicaturescanbesuspended,calculated,cancelledandreinforced.(1)CancellabilityConversationalimplicaturesarecancellableifweaddsomeotherpremisestotheoriginalones.Mike:Areyoucomingtotheparty?Annie:Myparentsareintown---butIamcoming.Propertiesofconversationalimplicatures(2)Non-detachabilityTheconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentof