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一、Renaissanceofthe12thCentury二、ScientificRevolution三、AgeofEnlightenment四、ModernScienceHistoryofmodernscienceinthewestTheRenaissanceofthe12thcenturywasaperiodofthemanychangesattheoutsetoftheHighMiddleAges.Itincludedsocial,politicalandeconomictransformations,andanintellectualrevitalizationofWesternEuropewithstrongphilosophicalandscientificroots.ThesechangespavedthewaytolaterachievementssuchastheliteraryandartisticmovementoftheItalianRenaissanceinthe15thcenturyandthescientificdevelopmentsofthe17thcenturyRenaissanceofthe12thcenturyScientificrevolution•Thescientificrevolutionwastheemergenceofmodernscienceduringtheearlymodernperiod,whendevelopmentsinmathematics,physics,astronomy,biology(includinghumananatomy)andchemistrytransformedviewsofsocietyandnature.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]Accordingtotraditionalaccounts,thescientificrevolutionbeganinEuropetowardstheendoftheRenaissanceeraandcontinuedthroughthelate18thcentury,influencingtheintellectualsocialmovementknownastheEnlightenment.ScientificRevolution哥白尼天体运行论1543AC托勒密天文学大成140AC布鲁诺1600AC开普勒行星三定律1609AC1619AC伽利略两大世界体系的对话1632AC牛顿1687ACPROCESSAgeofEnlightenment•TheAgeofEnlightenmentwasaEuropeanaffair.The17thcenturyAgeofReasonopenedtheavenuestothedecisivestepstowardsmodernscience,whichtookplaceduringthe18thcenturyAgeofEnlightenment.Directlybasedontheworks[97]ofNewton,Descartes,PascalandLeibniz,thewaywasnowcleartothedevelopmentofmodernmathematics,physicsandtechnologybythegenerationofBenjaminFranklin(1706–1790),LeonhardEuler(1707–1783),MikhailLomonosov(1711–1765)andJeanleRondd'Alembert(1717–1783),epitomizedintheappearanceofDenisDiderot'sEncyclopédiebetween1751and1772.BenjamineFranklinDuplessisModernscience•TheScientificRevolutionestablishedscienceasasourceforthegrowthofknowledge.Duringthe19thcentury,thepracticeofsciencebecameprofessionalizedandinstitutionalizedinwaysthatcontinuedthroughthe20thcentury.Astheroleofscientificknowledgegrewinsociety,itbecameincorporatedwithmanyaspectsofthefunctioningofnation-states.•Thehistoryofscienceismarkedbyachainofadvancesintechnologyandknowledgethathavealwayscomplementedeachother.Technologicalinnovationsbringaboutnewdiscoveriesandarebredbyotherdiscoveries,whichinspirenewpossibilitiesandapproachestolongstandingscienceissues.Modernscience•Naturalsciences1.Physics2.Chemistry3.Geology...•Socialsciences1.Politics2.Economics3.Psychology4.Sociology...Historyofphysics•NicolausCopernicusrevivedtheheliocentricmodelofthesolarsystemdescribedbyAristarchusofSamos.ThiswasfollowedbythefirstknownmodelofplanetarymotiongivenbyKeplerintheearly17thcentury,whichproposedthattheplanetsfollowellipticalorbits,withtheSunatonefocusoftheellipse.Galileo(FatherofModernPhysics)alsomadeuseofexperimentstovalidatephysicaltheories,akeyelementofthescientificmethod.Physics•Beginningin1900,MaxPlanck,AlbertEinstein,NielsBohrandothersdevelopedquantumtheoriestoexplainvariousanomalousexperimentalresults,byintroducingdiscreteenergylevelsChemistry•ThehistoryofmodernchemistrycanbetakentobeginwiththedistinctionofchemistryfromalchemybyRobertBoyleinhisworkTheScepticalChymist,in1661(althoughthealchemicaltraditioncontinuedforsometimeafterthis)andthegravimetricexperimentalpracticesofmedicalchemistslikeWilliamCullen,JosephBlack,TorbernBergmanandPierreMacquer.AnotherimportantstepwasmadebyAntoineLavoisier化学之父-安东尼·拉瓦锡(FatherofModernChemistry)throughhisrecognitionofoxygenandthelawofconservationofmass,whichrefutedphlogistontheory.Geology•Geologyexistedasacloudofisolated,disconnectedideasaboutrocks,minerals,andlandformslongbeforeitbecameacoherentscience.Theophrastus'workonrocks,Perilithōn,remainedauthoritativeformillennia:itsinterpretationoffossilswasnotoverturneduntilaftertheScientificRevolution.JamesHutton,thefatherofmoderngeologyPoliticalscience•Inthe20thcentury,thestudyofideology,behaviouralismandinternationalrelationsledtoamultitudeof'pol-sci'subdisciplinesincludingrationalchoicetheory,votingtheory,gametheory(alsousedineconomics),psephology,politicalgeography/geopolitics,politicalpsychology/politicalsociology,politicaleconomy,policyanalysis,publicadministration,comparativepoliticalanalysisandpeacestudies/conflictanalysis.Economics•Theabovehistoryofeconomicsreflectsmoderneconomictextbooksandthismeansthatthelaststageofascienceisrepresentedastheculminationofitshistory(Kuhn,1962).TheinvisiblehandmentionedinalostpageinthemiddleofachapterinthemiddleofthetoWealthofNations,1776,advancesasSmith'scentralmessage.AdamSmithwroteTheWealthofNations,thefirstmodernworkofeconomicsPsychology•ThephilosophersoftheBritishEmpiricistandAssociationistschoolshadaprofoundimpactonthelatercourseofexperimentalpsychology.JohnLocke'sAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding(1689),GeorgeBerkeley'sTreatiseConcerningthePrinciplesofHumanKnowledge(1710),andDavidHume'sATreatiseofHumanNature(1739–1740)wereparticularlyinfluential,aswereDavidHartley'sObservationsonMan(1749)andJohnStuartMill'sASystemofLogic.(1843).AlsonotablewastheworkofsomeContinentalRationalistphilosophers,especiallyBaruchSpinoza's(1632–1677)OntheImprovementoftheUnderstanding(1