unitl笛卡尔错了:“他人在,故我在”AccordingtoUbuntuphilosophy,whichhasitsoriginsinancientAfrica,anewbornbabyisnotaperson.Peoplearebomwithout6ena\orselfhood,andinsteadmustacquireitthroughinteractionsandexperiencesovertime.Sothe'self'/'other'distinctionthafsaxiomaticinWesternphilosophyismuchblurrierinUbuntuthought.AstheKenyan-bornphilosopherJohnMbitiputitinAfricanReligionsandPhilosophy(1975):‘Iambecauseweare,andsinceweare,thereforeIam.'乌班图哲学起源于古代非洲。按照它的说法,新生儿尚不能称为“人气初生时,人没有自我。随着时间的推移,在互动和经验中才能习得它。因此,西方哲学中自我/他者之间清晰的分野在乌班图哲学中变得模糊起来。出生于肯尼亚的哲学家约翰•姆比蒂(JohnMbiti)在著作《非洲的宗教与哲学》(AfricanReligionsandPhilosophy)中如是说:我在,因为我们在;因为我们在,所以我在。Weknowfromeverydayexperiencethatapersonispartlyforgedinthecrucibleofcommunity.Relationshipsinformself-understanding.WhoIamdependsonmany'others':myfamily,myfriends,myculture,myworkcolleagues.TheselfItakegroceryshopping,say,differsinheractionsandbehavioursfromtheselfthattalkstomyPhDsupervisor.Evenmymostprivateandpersonalreflectionsareentangledwiththeperspectivesandvoicesofdifferentpeople,beitthosewhoagreewithme,thosewhocriticise,orthosewhopraiseme.日常经验告诉我们,一个人一部分从社会的历练中锻造出来。社会关系赋予我们自我认知。我是谁,这个问题的答案依赖于众多他者:家庭、朋友、文化背景、同事等等。在杂货店购物的我和与博士导师交谈的我不是同一个自我。即便是私密、最个人的思绪也不同人的观点和声音纠缠在一起,无论是那些赞同我的人,还是那些批评我的人,抑或是那些赞美我的人。Yetthenotionofafluctuatingandambiguousselfcanbedisconcerting.Wecanchalkupthisdiscomfort,inlargepart,toReneDescartes.The17th-centuryFrenchphilosopherbelievedthatahumanbeingwasessentiallyself-containedandself-sufficient;aninherentlyrational,mind-boundsubject,whooughttoencountertheworldoutsideherheadwithskepticism.WhileDescartesdidn'tsingle-handedlycreatethemodernmind,hewentalongwaytowardsdefiningitscontours.但是,自我的摇摆不定和充满歧义让人不安。很大程度上,我们可以把这份不安归因于笛卡尔。这位17世纪的法国哲学家认为,人类本质上是自给自足的;省而理性、受其思想约束的个体,应该以怀疑的态度面对他头脑之外的世界。尽管笛卡尔没有单独创造出现代思维,但他在定义其框架上起到了很大的推动作用。Descarteshadsethimselfaveryparticularpuzzletosolve.HewantedtofindastablepointofviewfromwhichtolookontheworldwithoutrelyingonGod-decreedwisdoms;aplacefromwhichhecoulddiscernthepermanentstructuresbeneaththechangeablephenomenaofnature.ButDescartesbelievedthattherewasatrade-offbetweencertaintyandakindofsocial,worldlyrichness.Theonlythingyoucanbecertainofisyourowncogito-thefactthatyouarethinking.Otherpeopleandotherthingsareinherentlyfickleanderratic.Sotheymusthavenothingtodowiththebasicconstitutionoftheknowingself,whichisanecessarilydetached,coherentandcontemplativewhole.笛卡尔给自己提出了一个特别的谜团。他想要找到一种稳定的观点,而非依靠上帝赐予的智慧,来观察这个世界;由此,他可以透过自然界中变幻莫测的现象分辨出永久性的结构。但笛卡尔认为,稳定性和来自社会的、世俗的多样性之间存在权衡关系。你唯一能确定的,就是“我思故我在”一即,你思考的状态。其他人和其他事物是不稳定且难以预测的存在。因此,它们和认识自己的基本律条毫无关系。认识自我从来都是独自进行的,需要不断的深思。FewrespectedphilosophersandpsychologistswouldidentifyasstrictCartesiandualists,inthesenseofbelievingthatmindandmatterarecompletelyseparate.ButtheCartesiancogitoisstilleverywhereyoulook.Theexperimentaldesignofmemorytesting,forexample,tendstoproceedfromtheassumptionthatit'spossibletodrawasharpdistinctionbetweentheselfandtheworld.Ifmemorysimplylivesinsidetheskull,thenit'sperfectlyacceptabletoremoveapersonfromhereverydayenvironmentandrelationships,andtotestherrecallusingflashcardsorscreensintheartificialconfinesofalab.Apersonisconsideredastandaloneentity,irrespectiveofhersurroundings,inscribedinthebrainasaseriesofcognitiveprocesses.Memorymustbesimplysomethingyouhave,notsomethingyoudowithinacertaincontext.在认识到精神和身体是完全独立存在的基础上,很少有备受尊敬的哲学家和心理学家被认为是个彻底的笛卡尔式的二元论者。但笛卡尔式的我思故我在目之所及,已遍布每一个角落。记忆测试的实验设计趋于从一个假说出发,即自我和世界之间是可能存在明确界限的。如果记忆仅仅存在于我们的头颅中,那么,将一个人从他的日常生活的环境和社会关系中剥离出来,并在人造的封闭实验室中使用卡片或荧幕来检测他的记忆是百分百可行的。人被视作独立的个体,区别于环绕他的一切,是在大脑中被篆刻为一系列认知过程的存在。记忆一定是你拥有的事实,而不是你在特定环境下的行为产物。Socialpsychologypurportstoexaminetherelationshipbetweencognitionandsociety.Buteventhen,theinvestigationoftenpresumesthatacollectiveofCartesiansubjectsaretherealfocusoftheenquiry,notselvesthatco-evolvewithothersovertime.Inthe1960s,theAmericanpsychologistsJohnDarleyandBibbLatanebecameinterestedinthemurderofKittyGenovese,ayoungwhitewomanwhohadbeenstabbedandassaultedonherwayhomeonenightinNewYork.Multiplepeoplehadwitnessedthecrimebutnonesteppedintopreventit.DarleyandLatanedesignedaseriesofexperimentsinwhichtheysimulatedacrisis,suchasanepilepticfit,orsmokebillowinginfromthenextroom,toobservewhatpeopledid.Theywerethefirsttoidentifytheso-called'bystandereffect',inwhichpeopleseemtorespondmoreslowlytosomeoneindistressifothersarearound.社会心理学标榜自己致力于检验认知和社会间的关系。但即便如此,其研究常常假定如下主张:“询问”这一行为,其真正焦点在于一系列笛卡尔式议题的集合,而不是始终与他人共同演化的自我。在二十世纪六十年代,美国心理学家约翰•达利(JohnDarley)和比布•拉塔内(BibbLatane)对吉诺维斯案产生兴趣。吉诺维斯是一位年轻的白人女性,在回家的路上遭到袭击,被歹徒刺伤。很多人看到了这起罪行,却无人挺身而出。达利和拉塔内设计了一系列实验,模拟日常中的危机情况,比如癫痫发作、隔壁房间冒烟等,以此来观察人们的反应。他们首次发现了所谓的“旁观者效应”,即周围有他人存在的时候,人们对处于紧急情况中的个体的响应会变慢。DarleyandLatanesuggestedthatthismightcomefroma'diffusionofresponsibility,,inwhichtheobligationtoreactisdilutedacrossabiggergroupofpeople.ButastheAmericanpsychologistFrancesCherryarguedinTheStubbornParticularsofSocialPsychology:EssaysontheResearchProcess(1995),thisnumericalapproachwipesawayvitalcontextualinformationthatmighthelptounderstandpeople?srealmotives.Genovese,smurderhadtobeseenagainstabackdropinwhichviolenceagainstwomenwasnotta