搜索
Confucius,551B.C.E-479B.C.ENootherphilosopherintheworldhashadmoreenduringinfluencethanConfucius.Forovertwothousandyearshisconceptofgovernment,andhisideasaboutpersonalconductandmorality,permeatedChineselifeandculture.Eventoday,histhoughtsremaininfluential.TherewaslittleinhischildhoodbackgroundtopredicttheremarkableprestigethatConfuciuseventuallyachieved.HewasborninasmallprincipalityinnortheasternChina,wasrearedinpoverty,andhadnoformaleducation.Throughdiligentstudy,however,heeducatedhimselfandbecamealearnedman.Forawhileheheldaminorgovernmentpost;buthesoonresignedthatpositionandspentmostofhislifeasateacher.Eventually,hismostimportantteachingsweregatheredintoabook,theanalectswhichwascompiledbyhisdisciples.ThetwocornerstonesofhissystemofpersonalconductwereJenandLi.Jenmightbedefinedas“benevolentconcernforone’sfellowmen”Liistermlesseasilytranslated:itcombinesthenotionsofetiquette,goodmanners,anddueconcernforritualsandcustoms.Confuciusbelievedthatamanshouldstriveaftertruthandvirtueratherthanwealth(andinhispersonallifeheseemstohaveactedonthatprinciple).Inaddition,hewasthefirstmajorphilosophertostatetheGoldenRule,whichhephrasedas“Donotdountoothersthatwhichyouwouldnothavethemtodountoyou.”Confuciusbelievedthatrespectandobedienceareowedbychildrentotheirparents,bywivestotheirhusbands,andbysubjectstotheirrulers.Buthewasneveradefendertotyranny.Onthecontrary,thestartingpointofhispoliticaloutlookisthatthestateexistsforthebenefitofthepeople,nottherulers.Anotherofhiskeypoliticalideasisthataleadershouldgovernprimarilybymoralexample,ratherthanbyforce.Confuciusdidnotclaimtobeaninnovator,butalwayssaidthathewasmerelyurgingareturntothemoralstandardsofformertimes.Infact,however,thereformswhichheurgedrepresentedachangefrom-andagreatimprovementover-thegovernmentpracticesofearlierdays.Atthetimeofhisdeath,Confuciuswasarespected,butnotyetgreatlyinfluential,teacherandphilosopher.Gradually,though,hisideasbecamewidelyacceptedthroughoutChina.Then,inthethirdcenturyB.C.ShihHuangTiunitedallofChinaunderhisrule,anddecidedtoreformthecountryentirelyandmakeacompletebreakwiththepast.ShihHuangTithereforedecidedtosuppressConfucianteachings,andheorderedtheburningofallcopiesofConfucius’work..(Healsoorderedthedestructionofmostotherphilosophicalworks.)MostConfucianbookswereindeeddestroyed,butsomecopiessurvivedtheholocaust,andafewyearslater,afterthedynastyfoundedbythe“FirstEmperor”hadfallen,Confucianismre-emerged.Underthenextdynasty,theHan,Confucianismbecametheofficialstatephilosophy,apositionitmaintainedthroughoutmostofthenexttwomillennia.Indeed,formuchofthatperiod,thecivilserviceexaminationsinChinawerebasedprimarilyonknowledgeofConfucianclassics.Sincethoseexaminationswerethemainroutbywhichcommonerscouldentertheadministrationandachievepoliticalpower,thegoverningclassofthelargestnationonEarthwaslargelycomposedofmenwhohadcarefullystudiedtheworksofConfuciusandabsorbedhisprinciples.