新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram

1ChapterFourSyntax句法学2Whatissyntax?abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.句法学是研究词如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支。3Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;4Therearelikelytobeuniversalconstraints(普遍制约)onthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar普遍文法).5InthischapterweareconcernedwiththecompositionofsentencesbyintroducingsomeofthemostcommoncategoriesofwordsinEnglishaswellassomesimplerulesthatgoverntheorganizationofthesecategoriesintolargerstructuralunits.在本章中，我们主要涉及的是通过介绍英语中一些最为常见的词的范畴，以及支配这些范畴组成更大的结构单位的简单规则来讲讲句子的构成。6Categories范畴Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.范畴是指某一特定语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目,如句子,名词短语或者动词。7Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinallhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategory(句法范畴).8Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)句法学研究最核心的范畴是词层面的范畴.(传统语法中的词性)Itisdividedintotwokinds:9Word-levelcategories词层面的范畴Majorlexicalcategories(主要词汇范畴):Noun,verb,adjective,prepositionMinorLexicalcategories(次要词汇范畴):Determiner,degreeword,auxiliary,conjunction10Majorlexicalcategoriesplayaveryimportantroleinsentenceformation.Theydifferfromminorlexicalcategoriesinthattheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.11Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined确定词的范畴的标准Meaning(意义)Inflection(屈折变化)Distribution(分布)12Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.e.g.Nounstypicallydenoteentities.Verbscharacteristicallydesignateaction,sensationsandstates.Adjectivescanelaboratethepropertiesorattributesoftheentities.Adverbscandenotethepropertiesorattributesofaction,sensationsandstates.13Itismisleadingtoassumethataword’scategorycanbetoldstraightforwardfromitsmeaning.Firstly,nounssuchasdilemmaandfriendshipdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.Secondly,somewordssuchasloveandhatewhichindicateactionstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeusedasnouns.14Thirdly,wordswiththesameorsimilarmeaningssometimesbelongtodifferentwordcategories.e.g.beawareofandknowabout.Itisoftennotreliabletodetermineaword’scategorybyitsmeaningonly.Sometimeswehavetoresorttoothercriteria,suchasinflection.15‘s;-ed,-ing;-er,-est…Althoughinflectionisveryhelpfulindeterminingaword’scategory,itdoesnotalwayssuffice.Somewordsdonottakeinflections.Moisture,fog,sheep;Frequent,intelligentNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.16Thatiswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.Thus,aword’sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.因此,一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.17Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures短语范畴和它们的结构Phrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位被称为短语。Itcanconsistofjustonewordormoreelements.18NP,theprettygirlVP,oftendreamAP,verypessimisticPP’mainlyabout19Whetherformedofoneormorethanoneword,theyconsistoftwolevels,phraselevelandwordlevelasexemplifiedbelow.NP,VP,AP,PPPhraselevel(N),(V),(A),(P)wordlevel20Thestructureofphrase:Phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainthefollowingelements:specifier(标志语)+head(中心语)+complement(补语)21Head----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads22Phrasestructurerules短语结构规则Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:这种规定构成一个短语成分的排列的特殊语法机制类型被称为短语结构规则.如:23NP(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.24SpecifierXComplementHeadXP(X短语)TheXPruleXP规则Note:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.25X-TheoryX理论XP(Specifier)X-X-X(complement)X(head)complementspecifierXP(Phraselevel)X-26Coordinationrule并列规则Coordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.借助连词,如或将两个或两个以上相同类型的成分联结起来而构成的短语结构称为并列结构.Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:271.nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;2.acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;3.thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;4.thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.XX*ConX28CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]29