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Unit8KnowledgeandWisdom(abridged)BertrandRussell1Mostpeoplewouldagreethat,althoughouragefarsurpassesallpreviousagesinknowledge,therehasbeennocorrelativeincreaseinwisdom.Butagreementceasesassoonasweattempttodefine“wisdom”andconsidermeansofpromotingit.Iwanttoaskfirstwhatwisdomis,andthenwhatcanbedonetoteachit.2Thereare,Ithink,severalfactorsthatcontributetowisdom.OftheseIshouldputfirstasenseofproportion:thecapacitytotakeaccountofalltheimportantfactorsinaproblemandtoattachtoeachitsdueweight.Thishasbecomemoredifficultthanitusedtobeowingtotheextentandcomplexityofthespecializedknowledgerequiredofvariouskindsoftechnicians.Suppose,forexample,thatyouareengagedinresearchinscientificmedicine.Theworkisdifficultandislikelytoabsorbthewholeofyourintellectualenergy.Youhavenottimetoconsidertheeffectwhichyourdiscoveriesorinventionsmayhaveoutsidethefieldofmedicine.Yousucceed(letussay),asmodernmedicinehassucceeded,inenormouslyloweringtheinfantdeath-rate,notonlyinEuropeandAmerica,butalsoinAsiaandAfrica.Thishastheentirelyunintendedresultofmakingthefoodsupplyinadequateandloweringthestandardoflifeinthemostpopulouspartsoftheworld.Totakeanevenmorespectacularexample,whichisineverybody'smindatthepresenttime:Youstudythecompositionoftheatomfromadisinteresteddesireforknowledge,andincidentallyplaceinthehandsofpowerfullunaticsthemeansofdestroyingthehumanrace3.Insuchwaysthepursuitofknowledgemaybecomeharmfulunlessitiscombinedwithwisdom;andwisdominthesenseofcomprehensivevisionisnotnecessarilypresentinspecialistsinthepursuitofknowledge.3Comprehensivenessalone,however,isnotenoughtoconstitutewisdom.Theremustbe,also,acertainawarenessoftheendsofhumanlife.Thismaybeillustratedbythestudyofhistory.Manyeminenthistorianshavedonemoreharmthangoodbecausetheyviewedfactsthroughthedistortingmediumoftheirownpassions.Hegelhadaphilosophyofhistorywhichdidnotsufferfromanylackofcomprehensiveness,sinceitstartedfromtheearliesttimesandcontinuedintoanindefinitefuture.Butthechieflessonofhistorywhichhesoughttoinculcatewasthatfromtheyear400ADdowntohisowntimeGermanyhadbeenthemostimportantnationandthestandard-bearerofprogressintheworld.Perhapsonecouldstretchthecomprehensivenessthatconstituteswisdomtoincludenotonlyintellectbutalsofeeling.Itisbynomeansuncommontofindmenwhoseknowledgeiswidebutwhosefeelingsarenarrow.SuchmenlackwhatIcallwisdom.4Itisnotonlyinpublicways,butinprivatelifeequally,thatwisdomisneeded.Itisneededinthechoiceofendstobepursuedandinemancipationfrompersonalprejudice.Evenanendwhichitwouldbenobletopursueifitwereattainablemaybepursuedunwiselyifitisinherentlyimpossibleofachievement.Manymeninpastagesdevotedtheirlivestoasearchforthephilosopher'sstoneandtheelixiroflife.Nodoubt,iftheycouldhavefoundthem,theywouldhaveconferredgreatbenefitsuponmankind,butasitwastheirliveswerewasted.Todescendtolessheroicmatters,considerthecaseoftwomen,Mr.AandMr.B,whohateeachotherand,throughmutualhatred,bringeachothertodestruction.SupposeyougotoMr.Aandsay,“WhydoyouhateMr.B?”HewillnodoubtgiveyouanappallinglistofMr.B'svices,partlytrue,partlyfalse.AndnowsupposeyougotoMr.B.HewillgiveyouanexactlysimilarlistofMr.A'sviceswithanequaladmixtureoftruthandfalsehood.SupposeyounowcomebacktoMr.Aandsay,“YouwillbesurprisedtolearnthatMr.Bsaysthesamethingsaboutyouasyousayabouthim”,andyougotoMr.Bandmakeasimilarspeech.Thefirsteffect,nodoubt,willbetoincreasetheirmutualhatred,sinceeachwillbesohorrifiedbytheother'sinjustice.Butperhaps,ifyouhavesufficientpatienceandsufficientpersuasiveness,youmaysucceedinconvincingeachthattheotherhasonlythenormalshareofhumanwickedness,andthattheirenmityisharmfultoboth.Ifyoucandothis,youwillhaveinstilledsomefragmentsofwisdom.5Ithinktheessenceofwisdomisemancipation,asfaraspossible,fromthetyrannyofthehereandnow.Wecannothelptheegoismofoursenses.Sightandsoundandtouchareboundupwithourownbodiesandcannotbeimpersonal.Ouremotionsstartsimilarlyfromourselves.Aninfantfeelshungerordiscomfort,andisunaffectedexceptbyhisownphysicalcondition.Graduallywiththeyears,hishorizonwidens,and,inproportionashisthoughtsandfeelingsbecomelesspersonalandlessconcernedwithhisownphysicalstates,heachievesgrowingwisdom.Thisisofcourseamatterofdegree.Noonecanviewtheworldwithcompleteimpartiality;andifanyonecould,hewouldhardlybeabletoremainalive.Butitispossibletomakeacontinualapproachtowardsimpartiality,ontheonehand,byknowingthingssomewhatremoteintimeorspace,andontheotherhand,bygivingtosuchthingstheirdueweightinourfeelings.Itisthisapproachtowardsimpartialitythatconstitutesgrowthinwisdom.论知识与智慧我们的时代在知识方面远远超过过去所有时代，在智慧方面却没有得到相应的增加，这是大多数人都会同意的看法。但一旦我试图定义“智慧”并思考增进它的方法，人们就会有不同意见了。我想问的问题首先是何为智慧，其次是传授智慧的方法。我想，构成智慧有几种要素，其中须置于首位的是比例感：将问题的所有重要因素都考虑进去并掂量每个因素应有的分量的能力。鉴于各类技术员所需的专门知识的范围和复杂程度，这种能力变得比过去更难具备。比如，假设你从事医科，这份工作本身很难做，可能会耗费你的全部智能。你没有时间去考虑你的发现或发明可能带来的医学领域以外的影响。你成功了（我们假设），正如现代医学所做到的：婴儿死亡率不仅在欧美而且在亚非也大大降低了。但完全非你所愿的结果产生了：在世界人口最为稠密的地区，食物供应匮乏，生活水平下降。再举一个甚至更为引人注目的例子，当前人们都在关注此事：你渴望探求知识，不带功利性地去研究原子结构，却意外地将摧毁人类的手段置于狂人手中。因此，知识如果不与智慧同在，对知识的追求就能变得有危害性；就全方位来看，追求知识的专家们并不一定具备智慧。然而，仅有综合能力还不足以构成智慧，还必须加上对人生目的的某种意识。这一点可以在历史研究中得到说明。许多杰出的历史学家干的坏事多于好事，