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LanguageTeachingandLearningByWilgaM.RiversWeoftenspeakoflanguageasavehicleofexpression--ametaphorthatcanilluminemanyaspectsofourforeignlanguageteachingsituation.Languageisavehicleofmeaningthatwedonotevenrealizeweareusing;inotherwords,avehiclethatistransportingaperson'smessagesomewherebutisnotitselftheobjectofthetrip.Beforestudentscanusesuchavehiclefortheirpurposesitmustbeconstructed,andthisconstructionrequiresablueprintandvariousstagesofproduction,withtryoutsasthevarioussectionsandcombinationsareassembled--tryoutsduringwhichwhathasbeenassembledtodateisused,ifonlymomentarily,foritsultimatepurpose.Withourlanguagevehiclethisultimatepurposeisexpressionpeoplerevealingthemselvesto,ordisguisingorhidingthemselvesfrom,otherpeople.Expressioninvolvesalltheproblemsofinterpersonalrelations.Forthisreasonitisfrequentlylesspainfulforteachersandstudentstocontinueworkingontheconstructionofthevehiclethantotryitoutforlevelofperformance.Inamodelofforeign-languageteachingandlearningprocessesthatisnowquitewellknown,Ihavedistinguishedskill-getting,representedbybothcognitionandproduction(orpseudo-communication),fromskill-usingininteraction,whichinvolvesbothreceptionandexpressionandisdependentonmotivationtocommunicate.Theconstructionofourvehiclepresupposesadesign.Someparticularlytalentedindividualscanputthedesignintoeffectwithoutthehelpoftheblueprint;theyappeartomovedirectlyfromtheprototypetoproduction,whichmeansthattheydeveloptheirowninternalrepresentationfromacquaintancewiththeprototype.Thesearetheexceptions,however.Mostneedhelpindevelopingaseriesofblueprintsofincreasingcomplexityasabasisforproduction.Somepreferlessonsindraftingblueprints,whereasotherscandrawthemupfromexperiencewithaprototypeofthevehicle.Theseblueprintsrepresentthesystemunderlyingbothreceptionandexpression.Ourstudentsdependontheirblueprintsastheyputthepartstogetherinproductionsothatthevehiclewillfunction.Sometimesstudentstrymerelytocopysomeoneelse'sassembly.Thismayworkforatimebutleavesthestudentbewilderedastheassemblybecomesmorecomplicated.Atthisstageonlythosewithcomprehensiveblueprints,orinternalrepresentations,areabletomakethemechanismoperateastheywouldlike.Constructionisnot,however,theuseofthevehicle:Thisisrepresentedbythetryingoutthatcontinuallytakesplaceastheassemblytakesform.Itisonlythroughsuchtryoutsthattheoperationofthevehiclecanbesmoothlyintegrated,thefaultscorrected,andtheusergainconfidenceinhandlingit.Noanalogyshouldbepushedtoofar.Ihaveemphasizedthatmereproductionofitselfisnotsufficient.Ineverylessonitmustberegardedaspreliminarytoactuallytryingoutwhatisbeinglearnedsothatfromtheearlieststagesalllearningactivitiesleadtosomeformofrealcommunicationratherthanremainingatthelevelofpseudocommunicationthroughimposedutterances.Interactionhasalwaysbeenthemostneglectedpartofthelanguageactivitiesinwhichweengageintheclassroom.Thissituationwillnotimproveunlessdefinitestepsaretakentoincludesubstantialinteractionactivitiesineachlesson.Because“real”communicationforourstudentstakesplaceinthenativelanguage,itisnotsurprisingthattheyneedsomestimulustousetheforeignlanguagefornaturalpurposes.Interactiondoesnottakeplaceinavoid.Itisnotenoughtoputseveralpeopletogether;theremustalsobesomesituationalelementthatnaturallyelicitsaninterchange.Interactionisapurposefulperson-to-personaffairinspeechandinmostkindsofwriting.Thisinterpersonalcharacterofinteractionexplainswhysomuchofforeign-languageteachingandlearningremainsattheproductionorpseudo-communicationlevel.Inmostclassrooms,thereisverylittlereasonoropportunityforstudentsorteacherstorevealthemselvestoeachother:therelationshipisaformalandformalizedoneforwhichconventionalitiessuffice.Theteacheristheretoteach;thestudentsaretheretolearnwhattheteacherortheadministrationthinkstheyshouldlearn.Theusualgreetingsareexchanged,conventionalquestionsareaskedaboutmaterialpresentedaurallyorgraphically,andconventionalanswersarisingfromthematerialareexpected.Commonremarksthatmaybeheardare:Cometothepoint,Johnny.We'renotinterestedinyourpersonalhistory;Don'tasksillyquestions;That'snothingtodowithit.Didn'tyouhearthequestion?JohnHoltdescribesthemechanismsstudentsemploytodefendthemselvesinclassandprotecttheirrealselvesfromthehumiliationandembarrassmentthatcouldresultiftheyventuredtoexpressthemselvesinanuncertain,oftenhostileenvironment(andthisintheirnativelanguage).Theemotionalneedsoftheindividualmustbeunderstoodbytheteacherifthestudentsaretorealizetheirfullpotential.Spontaneouscommunicationandfreeinteractionarepossibleinanylanguageonlywhenteachersandtheirstudentshavebuiltupawarm,uninhibited,confident,sympatheticrelationshipandwhensucharelationshipalsoexistsamongthestudentsthemselves.Inthefirstlessonsnosuchstateofaffairsexistsasyet.Theteacher’seffortsfromthebeginningshouldbedevotedtobuildingupsuchrelationshipsthroughenjoyable,successfulexperiencesinusinginterestingandamusingsegmentsoflanguageinamultiplicityofwayssothatstudentsbegintofeelthattheycanexpressrealconcernsthroughthisnewmediumandthatitisexhilaratingtodoso.Thisconfidentattitude,soessentialtodevelop