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本资料由豪客考研论坛收集整理(sic.;it'sAmericanofcourse)thatresultsfrompractise.Thisisofcoursearguable,particularlythepracticecriterion.Otherswouldacceptchangesincapabilityorevensimpleknowledgeorunderstanding,evenifitisnotmanifestinbehaviour.Itishoweveranimportantcriterionthatlearnedbehaviourisnotpre-programmedorwhollyinstinctive(notawordusedmuchnowadays),evenifaninstinctualdriveunderpinsit.Behaviourcanalsochangeasaresultofmaturation-simplegrowing-up-withoutbeingtotallylearned.Thinkofthechangingattitudeofchildrenandadolescentstoopposite-sexpeers.Whateverthecase,therehastobeinteractionwiththeenvironment.Evenifpsychologistseveragreeaboutwhatlearningis,inpracticeeducationalistswon't,becauseeducationintroducesprescriptivenotionsaboutspecifyingwhatoughttobelearnt,andthereisconsiderabledisputeaboutwhetherthisoughtonlytobewhattheteacherwantsthelearnertolearn(implicitinbehaviouralmodels),orwhatthelearnerwantstolearn(asinhumanisticmodels).2009英语语言文学完形填空全文ObtainingLinguisticDataManyproceduresareavailableforobtainingdataaboutalanguage.Theyrangefromacarefullyplanned,intensivefieldinvestigationinaforeigncountrytoacasualintrospectionaboutone'smothertonguecarriedoutinanarmchairathome.Inallcases,someonehastoactasasourceoflanguagedata-aninformant.Informantsare(ideally)nativespeakersofalanguage,whoprovideutterancesforanalysisandotherkindsofinformationaboutthelanguage(e.g.translations,commentsaboutcorrectness,orjudgementsonusage).Often,whenstudyingtheirmothertongue,linguistsactastheirowninformants,judgingtheambiguity,acceptability,orotherpropertiesofutterancesagainsttheirownintuitions.Theconvenienceofthisapproachmakesitwidelyused,anditisconsideredthenorminthegenerativeapproachtolinguistics.Butalinguist'spersonaljudgementsareoftenuncertain,ordisagreewiththejudgementsofotherlinguists,atwhichpointrecourseisneededtomoreobjectivemethodsofenquiry,usingnon-linguistsasinformants.Thelatterprocedureisunavoidablewhenworkingonforeignlanguages,orchildspeech.Manyfactorsmustbeconsideredwhenselectinginformants-whetheroneisworkingwithsinglespeakers(acommonsituationwhenlanguageshavenotbeendescribedbefore),twopeopleinteracting,smallgroupsorlarge-scalesamples.Age,sex,socialbackgroundandotheraspectsofidentityareimportant,asthesefactorsareknowntoinfluencethekindoflanguageused.Thetopicofconversationandthecharacteristicsofthesocialsetting(e.g.thelevelofformality)arealsohighlyrelevant,asarethepersonalqualitiesoftheinformants(e.g.theirfluencyandconsistency).Forlargerstudies,scrupulousattentionhasbeenpaidtothesamplingtheoryemployed,andinallcases,decisionshavetobemadeaboutthebestinvestigativetechniquestouse.Today,researchersoftentape-recordinformants.Thisenablesthelinguist'sclaimsaboutthelanguagetobechecked,andprovidesawayofmakingthoseclaimsmoreaccurate('difficult'piecesofspeechcanbelistenedtorepeatedly).Butobtainingnaturalistic,good-qualitydataisnevereasy.Peopletalkabnormallywhentheyknowtheyarebeingrecorded,andsoundqualitycanbepoor.Avarietyoftape-recordingprocedureshavethusbeendevisedtominimisethe本资料由豪客考研论坛收集整理(howtoobservethewaypeoplebehavewhentheyarenotbeningobserved).Somerecordingsaremadewithoutthespeakerbeingawareofthefact-aprocedurethatobtainsverynaturaldata,thoughethicalobjectionsmustbeanticipated.Alternatively,attemptscanbemadetomakethespeakerforgetabouttherecording,suchaskeepingthetaperecorderoutofsight,orusingradiomicrophones.Ausefultechniqueistointroduceatopicthatquicklyinvolvesthespeaker,andstimulatesanaturallanguagestyle(e.g.askingolderinformantsabouthowtimeshavechangedintheirlocality).Anaudiotaperecordingdoesnotsolveallthelinguist'sproblems,however.Speechisoftenunclearandambiguous.Wherepossible,therefore,therecordinghastobesupplementedbytheobserver'swrittencommentsonthenon-verbalbehaviouroftheparticipants,andaboutthecontextingeneral.Afacialexpression,forexample,candramaticallyalterthemeaningofwhatissaid.Videorecordingsavoidtheseproblemstoalargeextent,buteventheyhavelimitations(thecameraconnotbeeverywhere),andtranscriptionsalwaysbenefitfromanyadditionalcommentaryprovidedbyanobserver.Linguistsalsomakegreatuseofstructuredsessions,inwhichtheysystematicallyasktheirinformantsforutterancesthatdescribecertainactions,objectsorbehaviour.Withabilingualinformant,orthroughuseofaninterpreter,itispossibletousetranslationtechniques('Howdoyousaytableinyourlanguage?').Alargenumberofpointscanbecoveredinashorttime,usinginterviewworksheetsandquestionnaires.Often,theresearcherwishestoobtaininformationaboutjustasinglevariable,inwhichcasearestrictedsetofquestionsmaybeused:aparticularfeatureofpronunciation,forexample,canbeelicitedbyaskingtheinformanttosayarestrictedsetofwords.Therearealsoseveraldirectmethodsofelicitation,suchasaskinginformantstofillintheblanksinasubstitutionframe(e.gI__seeacar),orfeedingthemthewrongstimulusforcorrection('IsitpossibletosayInocansee?').Arepresentativesampleoflanguage,compiledforthep