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第一部分考试范围内本次考试考第一部分列举的前15个。后面第二部分列举的仅供以后学习参考。(一)了解基本逻辑，避免常见错误要了解基本逻辑错误一定不能错过一篇英文小品文LoveIsAFallacy(作者MaxShulman)，这里仅列举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。1.草率前提(DictoSimpliciter)例如：Womenareonaveragenotasstrongasmenandlessabletoperformwellpolitically.Therefore,womencan'tpulltheirweightingovernmentwork.点评：虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作，但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。2.过度概化(HastyGeneralization)例如：McDonald'sandKFCofferfoodswithlittlenutrition,andthuswecannotexpectanyfastfoodrestauranttoprovideuswithnutritiousfoods.点评：两个个例不足以推出一个真理。3.因果颠倒(PostHoc)例如：Mostyoungcriminalswatchviolentmoviesbeforetheycommittheircrimes;obviously,violentmoviesleadtojuveniledelinquency.点评：甲事情发生在乙事情之前，这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。4.矛盾前提(ContradictoryPremises)例如：IfGodcandoeverything,canhemakeastonesoheavythathecan'tcarry?点评：前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方，结论当然是错误的。5.感性论证(AdMisericordiam)例如：Thinkofallthepoor,starvingAfricanchildren!Howcouldrichcountriesbesocruelasnottohelpthem?点评：抒情是不能当作论证的。6.错误类比(FalseAnalogy)例如：Youngchildrenarelikeflowers---flowersshouldstayawayfromterribleweathertogrow,sochildrenneedtogetridofeverythingnegative.点评：孩子和花朵的区别太大。成长的过程也太复杂。最好不要用这两者来类比。7.虚假假设(HypothesisContrarytoFact)例如：IfTVwerenotinvented,todaypeoplewouldneverhavesuchwonderfulentertainmentbroughtbyTV.点评：因为电视已经被发明了，对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。8.无关转移(RedHerring)例如：Manypeoplesayweneedtoexploittheouterspace,apointwhichIbelieveiswrong,becausetherearesomanypoorpeopleonEarthwhohardlymakeendsmeet.点评：有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。9.从众错误(Bandwagon)例如：Everyonesaysitisjustifiedtolearnasecondlanguagesowemustlearnone.点评：人人都说，或者大多数都说，这并不意味着该观点正确。10.滑坡谬误(Slipperyslope)例如：Ifwedon'tcareabouttheenvironment,theworldwilldiein50years.点评：从环境问题到世界灭亡，中间有无数环节未提供论证。ExamplesofSlipperySlope1.Wehavetostopthetuitionincrease!Thenextthingyouknow,they'llbecharging$40,000asemester!2.TheUSshouldn'tgetinvolvedmilitarilyinothercountries.Oncethegovernmentsendsinafewtroops,itwillthensendinthousandstodie.3.Youcannevergiveanyoneabreak.Ifyoudo,they'llwalkalloveryou.4.We'vegottostopthemfrombanningpornography.Oncetheystartbanningoneformofliterature,theywillneverstop.Nextthingyouknow,theywillbeburningallthebooks!11.appealtoemotionYouattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.Example:Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.12.adhominem,personalattack人身攻击Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.Example:AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudiencewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweird.第七条：诉诸虚伪13.loadedquestion含沙射影Youaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatitcouldn'tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.Loadedquestionfallaciesareparticularlyeffectiveatderailingrationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipientoftheloadedquestioniscompelledtodefendthemselvesandmayappearflusteredoronthebackfoot.Example:GraceandHelenwerebothromanticallyinterestedinBrad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,GraceaskedinaninquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrughabit.14.appealtoauthority诉诸权威Yousaidthatbecauseanauthoritythinkssomething,itmustthereforebetrue.It'simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismisstheclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityarenotvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaimsofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessonehasasimilarlevelofunderstandingand/oraccesstoempiricalevidence.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofapersonorinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;thereforetheauthoritythatsuchapersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearinguponwhethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.Example:Notabletodefendhispositionthatevolution'isn'ttrue'Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution(andpresumablyisn'taprimate).15窃取论点.beggingthequestionYoupresentedacircularargumentinwhichtheconclusionwasincludedinthepremise.Thislogicallyincoherentargumentoftenarisesinsituationswherepeoplehaveanassumptionthatisveryingrained,andthereforetakenintheirmindsasagiven.Circularreasoningisbadmostlybecauseit'snotverygood.Example:ThewordofZorbotheGreatisflawlessandperfect.Weknowthisbecauseits