《英语修辞学》第二章

EnglishRhetoricBySongPingfengChapterTwoBriefHistoryofWesternRhetoricPage2•1.Classicalrhetoric•2.RhetoricintheMiddleAges•3.RhetoricintheRenaissance•4.NewClassicRhetoric•5.ContemporaryRhetoricContentsofThisChapterPage3TheconceptofrhetoricingeneralAlongwithgrammarandlogicordialectic,rhetoricisoneofthethreeancientartsofdiscourse.Rhetoricnormallyexplainsthethreeartsofusinglanguageasameanstopersuade(logos,pathos,andethos),aswellasthefivecanonsofRhetoric:memory,invention,delivery,style,andarrangement.FromancientGreecetothelate19thCentury,itwasacentralpartofWesterneducation,fillingtheneedtotrainpublicspeakersandwriterstomoveaudiencestoactionwitharguments.Page41.Classicalrhetoric(5thB.C–5thA.D.)Intheancienttimes,rhetoricevolvedasanimportantart,onethatprovidedtheoratorwiththeforms,means,andstrategiesforpersuadinganaudienceofthecorrectnessoftheorator'sarguments.RhetoricoriginatesfromtheancientGreece.Itprovidestwonecessaryconditionsfortheclassicalrhetoric.1.1Necessaryconditionsofclassicalrhetoric(1)GreekDemocracy:Democracyprovidesanecessaryconditionforthebirthofclassicalrhetoric.TheancientGreeksareauniquepeople.TheybelievedthatindividualsshouldbefreeaslongastheyactedwithinthelawsofGreece.Thisallowedthemtheopportunitytoexcelanydirectiontheychose.Individualitywasthebasisoftheirsociety.TheabilitytostriveforexcellencewaswhatAtheniansdearlybelievedin.(2)Greatthinkers/scholars:Therearealotofgreatthinkers/scholarsintheancientGreece,suchasSocrates(苏格拉底),Plato(柏拉图),andAristotle(亚里士多德).TheirgreatWordsandthoughtsarestilltaughtinuniversitiestothisday.Mostofthemaregreatrhetoricians.Page51.2ThesocialandpoliticalorganizationsofAncientGreece:(1)PolisorCity-state:In508B.C.,thecityofAthensbecameoneofthefirstpolis,oroneofthefirstcity-statesinancienttimes.(2)DemocracyandCouncil:In508B.C.,Cleisthenes(克利斯提尼，他将索伦的立法改革制定成法律文件，通常被认为是雅典民主政治的创建者)institutedanewpoliticalorganizationwherebythecitizenswouldtakeamorecarefulandmoredirectroleinrunningthecity-state.Hecalledthisnewpoliticalorganization“demokratia”,ordemocracy----rulebytheentirebodyofcitizens.HecreatedaCouncilofFiveHundredwhichplannedthebusinessofthepublicassemblies.ItwastheCouncilthatprovidedpeopleaplaceofpublicspeaking.Page61.3SophistsandtheirpracticesofrhetoricOutofgrowingdemandforeducationinthe5thcenturyB.B.,Greececalledintoexistenceaclassofteachersknownassophists.Sophistwereaprofessionalclassratherthanaschool,andassuchtheywerescatteredoverGreeceandexhibitedprofessionalrivalries.Thesophistsundertooktoprovideastockofargumentsonanysubject,ortoproveanyposition.Theyboastedoftheirabilitytomaketheworseappearthebetterreason,toprovethatblackiswhite.OnerepresentativeofthemwasGorgias.“Manisthemeasureofallthings.”人类是衡量所有事物的标准。Page71.4SomeAncientGreekRhetoriciansandtheirtheory(1).Corax(科拉克斯)CoraxofSyracuseandhisstudentsTisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专门为诉讼者撰写诉状)werethefirstrhetoriciansinhistory.Histheory:thefirstisatheoryofhowargumentsshouldbedevelopedfromprobabilities;thesecondistheirfirstconceptoforganizationofamessage.AccordingtoCorax,legalargumentsshouldconsistoffourparts:introductory,explanation,argumentationandconclusion.(Corax将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)Page8Platomaintainedthatrhetoricwastheexpressionoftruthandtheartofrationaldiscourseratherthantheartofeloquentexpression.Hearguedthatclarity,consistencyandnaturalnessweretheonlyfeaturesnecessaryfortheeffectivepresentationofideas.Heassertedthatgenuineeloquencederiveditsforcefromtruthandspontaneity.This,inpart,wasareactiontotheuseofrhetoricalartificebytheSophistsasameansofdeceivingandmanipulatingpeople.(2)PlatoandhistheoryaboutrhetoricPage9•柏拉图的著作中很多地方都表达了对修辞的贬斥。在《高尔吉亚篇》中，苏格拉底声称，修辞“发明的是这样一种劝服方式：它只制造对正义与非正义的看法，却对如何认识它们毫无教益”（Plato：455a）；修辞家“不需要了解事物的真实面目，他只需找到某种方式让那些无知的人相信他比真正有知识的人更有知识就行了”（459b）。因此，修辞与真理无关，根本不关心真理，甚至带有明显的欺骗意味。•然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的关键场所。在这篇对话中，柏拉图着重探讨了真理（aletheia）与语言（logos）的关系。Page10•拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，赞美人类的创造力。(384-322BC)famouslysetforthanextendedtreatiseonrhetoricthatstillrepayscarefulstudytoday.InthefirstsentenceofTheArtofRhetoric,Aristotlesaysthatrhetoric”isthecounterpartofdialectic.Hemeansthatrhetorichasadomainorscopeofapplicationthatisparalleltobutdifferentfromthedomainorscopeofapplicationofdialectic.Rhetoricisusedinplaceofdialecticwhenwearediscussingcivicissuesinacourtoflaworinalegislativeassembly.Thedomainofrhetoriciscivicaffairsandpracticaldecisionmakingincivicaffairs,nottheoreticalconsiderationsofoperationaldefinitionsoftermsandclarificationofthought–these,forhim,areinthedomainofdialectic.(3).Aristotle(亚里士多德)andhistheoryaboutrhetoricPage12Aristotleheavilyemphasizesthethreebasicelementsinrhetoric:logos(逻辑),pathos(情感)andethos(人格).1.Logoscontainsprofoundimplica