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PARTIChallenges3WinningasaTeam團隊致勝WinningasaTeamIfcomplexityandvariabilityarewhatmakesupplychainmanagementahardgametomaster,thenthebesttacticsarethosethatleadtosimplicityandstability.Indeed,mostoftheinnovationsinsupplychainmanagementoverthepast20yearshaveattemptedtobothsimplifyandstabilizetheflowofdemand,supply,andcash.Theseinnovationsincludetheextensionofjust-in-timemanufacturingtechniquesouttothesupplychain,plusavarietyofspecializedprogramsformanagingthereplenishmentofretailinventories.Unfortunately,thegainsproducedbytheseprogramshaveoftencomeattheexpenseofotherlinksinthechain,andthatdoesn'timprovethecompetitivenessofthechainasawhole.Abrieflookatgametheoryrevealswhytheseprogramsarefallingshortandpointsthewaytothewinningstrategy:integratingthemembersofthesupplychainintoasmoothlyfunctioningteambymakingsurethateverymember'swincontributestothesuccessofalltheothers.倘若供應鏈管理不易精通是因為其複雜性(complexity)與變異性(variability)，那麼最好的戰術就是設法讓系統變得單純(simplicity)與穩定(stability)。的確，在過去20年間，大部分的供應鏈管理創新，都在企圖讓需求(demand)、供應(supply)與帳款(cash)的流程可以簡單，而且穩定地進行。這些創新的方法包括延伸及時制(JIT)生產技術於供應鏈上，以及數種管理零售存貨補充的推動方案(programs)。不幸的是，這些推動方案所帶來的收益常造成供應鏈其他連結(links)費用的增加，而無法提升整體供應鏈的競爭力。本章簡單以「賽局理論」(gametheory)探討，可以發現這些推動方案有所不足之原因，並指出致勝策略之道：整合供應鏈成員成為一個運作順暢的團隊，確保每位成員的獲勝會帶給其他成員的成功。JITSupplyPrograms(及時制供應方案)JIThastransformedmanufacturingOfthemanyeffortstoimprovetheflowofrawmaterialsintoproductionfacilities,mosthaveinvolvedextendingthereachofthejust-in-time(JIT)manufacturingmethodupstreamtowardsuppliers.OneofthekeyelementsoftheJITapproachiseliminatingexcessinventorythroughouttheproductionprocessbytimingthemovementofmaterialstoeachworkstationtoarrivejustatthemomenttheyareneededforthenextoperation.Thispracticeminimizesinventoriesthroughouttheproductionprocess,helpingmanufacturingcompaniesreduceholdingcosts,minimizeobsolescence,andimprovetheirreturnonassets.ThesebenefitshaveledtothewidespreadadoptionofJITthroughoutindustriesthatuserepetitiveproductiontechniques.及時制改變了製造方式在改善物料到生產設施間流程的許多努力中，常見的做法是將及時制生產方法(just-in-time(JIT)manufacturing)向上延伸至供應商端。及時制(JIT)方法的關鍵要素之一是，藉由排定「投料」到各工作站地時間，讓物料根據下一個作業(nextoperation)所需適時地送達，以減少生產過程中多餘的存貨。這樣的做法可以讓製程中的物料存貨降到最低，讓生產工廠降低存貨持有成本，減少老舊存貨，並且改善資產報酬率。由於有這些優點，使得及時制生產方法廣泛地被應用於重複性生產技術的產業中(repetitiveproductiontechniques)。JITSupplyPrograms(及時制供應方案)FrequentshipmentsreducetotalinventoryOfthethreeinventoriesheldinproductionfacilities,thework-in-Process(WIP)inventoryismosteasilyreducedusingJIT.ButWIPisusuallythesmallestandleastexpensiveoftheinventories,andtacklingtheothertworequireschangingthewaysuppliersdeliverrawmaterialsandcustomersreceivefinishedgoods.Inordertobringdowntheinventoryofrawmaterials,JITproducersworkwiththeirsupplierstoswitchoverfromlargeshipmentsofmaterialsthatgotocentralreceivingfacilitiestosmall,frequentshipmentsthatgodirectlyfromtruckstothefactoryfloor(Figure3.1).Thechangeisadramaticone,oftentakingacompanyfrommonthlyordersandshipmentstomultipleshipmentsadaywithpreciselytimedarrivals.MostJITproducershaveasimilarprogramontheoutboundside,usingsmall,frequentdeliveriestominimizetheirinventoryoffinishedgoods.頻率高的貨件運送可以降低總存貨在生產設施所持有的三種存貨類型中，在製品(WIP)最容易運用及時制方法來降低存貨水準。然而，在製品存貨通常是其中占最小比率也花費最少的部分，不過解決另外兩種存貨(原物料、製成品)問題必須改變供應商交運原物料與交付顧客製成品的方式。為了降低原物料存貨，及時制生產工廠與他們的供應商合作，將物料由大批量送到工廠中央物料倉庫的方式，改為小批量高頻度直接由卡車送到生產線上(factoryfloor)的方式(見圖3.1)。這是個相當巨大的改變，通常會將公司的月訂單／月交貨模式改變為嚴格到貨時間要求之1日數次配送模式。大部分及時制生產工廠對於外向物流(outboundlogistics)也有類似做法，即採用小批量高頻度的配送以降低製成品存貨水準。JITSupplyPrograms(及時制供應方案)Just-in-TimeSupplyJITSupplyPrograms(及時制供應方案)JITrequiresclosepartnershipswithsuppliersAssoonasmanufacturersbegintomakethesekindsofchanges.JITquicklyexpandsfromaproductioninitiativetoamuchbroaderprogramthatrequiressystematicchangesinsupplychainmanagement.Toyota,thecompanythatpioneeredtheJITmethodinthe1970s,waskeenlyawareofthisaspectofitsprogram,anditworkedcloselywithitssupplierstoconverttheiroperationstoJITaswell,preciselycoordinatingtheflowofgoodsfromsupplierstoproductionplants.Inordertosupportthecloserelationshiprequiredbythisnewkindofproduction,ToyotausedauniquelyJapaneseformofjointpartnership,calledakeiretsu,withitskeysuppliers.InToyota'scase,thekeiretsuinvolvedtakinga20to50equitypositionineachsupplierandreplacing20ofitskeyexecutiveswithToyotapersonnel.及時制要求緊密的供應商夥伴關係在製造廠陸續進行這些改變後，及時制很快地由生產推動方案擴展到更大範圍的推動方案，要求供應鏈管理的系統性變革。豐田公司(Toyota)，在1970年代發展出及時制，很清楚及時制的特性，並緊密地與其上游供應商合作，將供應商作業也轉變成及時制，精準地調節從供應商到生產線的物料流程。為了支援新生產方案所需的緊密關係，豐田公司(Toyota)與其主要供應商間採用了獨特日本型態的聯合夥伴關係(jointpartnership)，稱之為企業團(keiretsu)。以豐田案例來說，「企業團」的做法涉及持有供應商20%～50%的股東權益，以豐田公司人員替換供應商20%的主要高階主管。JITSupplyPrograms(及時制供應方案)SimplerorderingreducescomplexityJITpracticesofferimportantinsightsintohowsupplychainscanbeimproved.AlthoughtheapparentfocusofJITisonreducinginventory,thetruespiritofthemethodisasystematicpursuitofquality,oneaspectofwhichiseliminatinganyunnecessarycomplexity.Inthecaseofsupplychaintransactions,thisphilosophyhasledtoamuchneededstreamliningoftheorder-shipment-paymentcycle.Insteadofaccumulatinglargeordersmixingmanydifferentkindsofmaterials,producersplacemanyordersforindividualmaterials,oftenpayingforthesemater