Chapter3Morphology形态学Definition定义Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学是语法的一个分支,研究词的内部结构和构词规则。Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.形态学可分为两个分支科学:屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化,后者研究词的构成。1.Morpheme语素Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage语言最小的意义单位。Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.语素表达的意义有两种:词汇意义和语法意义。2.Typesofmorphemes语素的分类a)Freemorphemes自由语素Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.自由语素是独立的意义单位,能够独自自由使用,当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。b)Boundmorphemes黏着语素Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.黏着语素是那些不能单独使用,而必须和其它语素-自由语素或黏着语素-结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。3.Typesofboundmorphemes黏着语素的分类Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes词根和词缀。Arootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.词根被看作是词的一部分,它有清楚、明确的意思,但不能单独存在,它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴,如:数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括:-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式,这样的方式叫派生法,用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例:Tolerate词根toler-+词缀-ateQuickly自由语素quick+词缀-lyCarelessness自由语素care+词缀-less形成的派生词careless+词缀-nessAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes前缀和后缀Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.前缀改变词干的意思,但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-”和“en(m)-”是例外。Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.后缀加在词干的末尾,改变原词的意思,并且在多数情况下,改变原词的词性。4.Morphologicalrules形态学规则Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则,即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则,但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则,以免生造出不存在的单词。5.Typesofcompoundwords复合词的类型Noun+noun名词+名词如:handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容词+名词如:highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容词+名词+ed如:white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun动词+名词如:pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副词+名词如:downtown,upgradeNoun+verb名词+动词如:toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb动词+副词如:follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective名词+形容词如:world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun-ing形式+名词如:dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms其它形式如:go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote6.Featuresofcompounds1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.在拼写上,复合词既可以写成一个词,中间加连字符或不加连字符,也可以分开写。如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.在语法上,复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词,head-strong也是形容词,greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有:follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词,而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.在语意上,复合词的意义具有习语特性,许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.在语音上,复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上,而次重音在第二个构成成分上。这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式,一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式,另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如runningdog重音在running上,表示“走狗”这一-ing形式+名词的复合词。如重音在dog上,则表示running用来修饰dog,意为“还在跑的狗”。