欧洲文化概况

Chapter6TheSeventeenthCentureIntroductionPart1Historicalbackground–religion,trade,governancePart2NewdirectioninthoughtPart3SciencePart4TheartsandliteratureConclusionIntroductionThe17thcenturywasthecenturywhichlastedfrom1601to1700.Theprinciplequestionthataroseonthe17thcenturewastodowithauthority.InpoliticsItwasaboutwhohadtherighttoauthorityandinwhatwaysitshouldbeused.InphilosopyItwasaquestionofwhereauthoritylies,withintheindividualoroutsideoftheindividual.IntroductionInscienceItwastodowithestablishingtheauthorityofevidencethroughtheuseofsciencemethod.InreligionItwasaboutwhetherauthoritylieswithintheindividualorwiththechurch.Part1Historicalbackground–religion,trade,governanceThreethingswerecrucialinthedevelopmentof17thcenturyEuropeansocieties:TheproblemofreligiousdifferencesThegrowthofatradingmiddleclassThetheoriesandpracticeofgovernanceReligionLikeotherreligiousreformersofthetime,Huguenots胡格诺教徒feltthattheCatholicChurchneededradicalcleansingofitsimpurities,andthatthePoperuledtheChurchasifitwasaworldlykingdom.TheCatholicChurchinFranceopposedtheHuguenots,andtherewereincidentsofattacksonHuguenotpreachersandcongregants聚会者astheyattemptedtomeetforworship.Theheightofthispersecution迫害wastheSt.Bartholomew'sDaymassacre圣·巴多罗谬惨案(InFrench)St.Bartholomew'sDaymassacre圣·巴多罗谬惨案.OnemorningatthegatesoftheLouvreMillais'painting,AHuguenotonSt.Bartholomew'sdayKingHenryIVIn1598,KingHenryIVsignedtheEditofNantes南特诏书,whichmadetheendofthereligiouswars,andgavetheHuguenotstherighttoworshipintheirownway.ThirtyYears'War(inGermany)TheThirtyYears'War(1618–1648)wasoneofthemostdestructiveconflictsinEuropeanhistory.ThewarwasfoughtprimarilyinGermanyandatvariouspointsinvolvedmostofthecountriesofEurope.InitiallythewarwasfoughtlargelyasareligiousconflictbetweenProtestantsandCatholicsintheHolyRomanEmpire.ThirtyYears'War(inGermany)Gradually,thewardevelopedintoamoregeneralconflictinvolvingmostoftheEuropeanpowers.AmajorimpactoftheThirtyYears'Warwastheextensivedestructionofentireregions.Religion(inEngland)Basedonconflictingpolitical,religiousandsocialpositions,therewasanEnglishCivilWarbetweenthesupportersofParliamentandthoseofkingCharlesI.TheParliamentarianswerevictorious,CharlesIwasexecutedandthekingdomreplacedwiththeCommonwealth联邦.LeaderoftheParliamentforces,OliverCromwelldeclaredhimselfLordProtectorin1653.Religion(inEngland)BythetimeofCromwell'sdeath,Englandhadlargelygrownweary厌烦ofPuritan清教徒的rule,soCharlesIIwasinvitedtoreturnasmonarch君主in1660withtheRestoration.TheEnglishRestorationrestoredthemonarchyunderKingCharlesIIandpeaceaftertheEnglishCivilWar.TradeandthemiddleclassThenumerouswarsdidnotpreventEuropeanstatesfromexploringandconqueringwideportionsoftheworld,fromAfricatoAsiaandthenewlydiscoveredAmericas.Thisexpansionhelpedtheeconomyofthecountriesowningthem.Tradeflourished,becauseoftheminorstabilityoftheempires.MerchantsinVeniceElizabethIReigned1558–1603(44years,127days)Elizabeth'sreignisknownastheElizabethanera,famousaboveallfortheflourishingofEnglishdrama,andfortheseafaring航海事业的prowess威力ofEnglishadventurers.Her44yearsonthethroneprovidedwelcomestabilityforthekingdomandhelpedforgeasenseofnationalidentity.TradeInthe16thcentury,Hollandwasthecentreoffreetrade,imposingnoexchangecontrols,andadvocatingthefreemovementofgoods.TradeintheEastIndieswasdominatedbyPortugalinthe16thcentury,theNetherlandsinthe17thcentury,andtheBritishinthe18thcentury.TheSpanishEmpiredevelopedregulartradelinksacrossboththeAtlanticandthePacificOceans.TradeThegrowthoftradeandincreasingcommunicationraisedthequestionofinternationallaw.HugoGrotius格劳修斯(Dutch,1583–1645)wroteOntheLawofWarandPeace论战争与和平法(1625).Helaidthefoundationsforinternationallaw,basedonnaturallaw.Mercantilism商业本位/重商主义Mercantilismisaneconomictheory,consideredtobeaformofeconomicnationalism经济国家主义,thatholdsthattheprosperityofanationisdependentuponitssupplyofcapital,andthattheglobalvolumeofinternationaltradeisunchangeable.Economicassets资产areheldbythestate,whichisbestincreasedthroughapositivebalanceoftrade贸易的顺差withothernations.MercantilismMercantilismsuggeststhattherulinggovernmentshouldadvancethesegoalsbyplayingaprotectionist贸易保护的roleintheeconomybyencouragingexportsanddiscouragingimports,notablythroughtheuseoftariffs关税andsubsidies补贴.ThetheorydominatedWesternEuropeaneconomicpoliciesfromthe16thtothelate-18thcentury.King,GodandtaxationGreatchainofbeing存在之链GreatchainofbeingisaclassicalChristianandWesternmedievalconceptdetailingastrict,hierarchicalstructure层次结构ofallmatterandlife,believedtohavebeendecreed颁布byGod.GreatchainofbeingThechainstartsfromGodandprogressesdownwardtoangels,demons魔鬼(fallen/renegade变节的angels),stars,moon,kings,princes,nobles,men,wildanimals,domesticated驯养的animals,trees,otherplants,preciousstones,preciousmetals,andotherminerals.theGreatChainofBeingTheChainofBeingiscomposedofagreatnumberofhierarchicallinks,fromthemostbasicandfoundationalelementsupthroughtheveryhighestperfection,inotherwords,God.King,GodandtaxationAsthespiritofquestioningandamoresecular长期的outlookaroseinthe