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11.Whatarethemajortypesofsentences?Illustratethemwithexamples.Traditionally,therearethreemajortypesofsentences.Theyaresimplesentence,coordinate(compound)sentence,andcomplexsentence.Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence,forexample:Johnreadsextensively.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordthatiscalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchasand,but,or.Forexample:Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,andMaryispreparingforherhistoryexam.Acomplexsentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencedonothaveequalstatus,oneissubordinatetotheother.Forexample:BeforeJohngaveheralecture,Maryshowednointerestinlinguistics.2.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesoflanguage:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.(1)Arbitrarinessisthecorefeatureoflanguage,whichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Arbitrarinessisamatterofdegree.(2)Duelityofstructurereferstothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirstlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenassequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.(3)Productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandandifinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone'slanguage,includingthosethatonehasneverheardbefore.(4)Displacementreferstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.(5)Culturaltransmissionshowsthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,buthavetobelearnedandtaught.(6)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.3.Theorginoflanguage(1)Thebow-bowtheory:inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsofanimalcallsinthewildenironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Onomatopoeticwordsseemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.(2)Thepooh-poochtheory:inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,anger,andjoy.(3)Theyo-he-yotheory:asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.4.Functionsoflanguage(1)Theinformativefunctionisregardedasthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage(2)Theinterpersonalfunctionisthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguagebywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.(3)Theperformativefunctionisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies.thelanguageusedisquiteformalandevenritualized.(4)Theemotivefunctionchangestheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itissimilartoexpressivefunctionbutthelattercanbetotallywithoutanyimplicationofcommunicationtoothers.(5)thephaticcommunionenablespeopletomaintainacomfortablerelationshipwithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.2(6)therecreationalfunctionreferstotheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.(7)Themetlingualfunctionmeansthatwecanuselanguagetotalkaboutlanguage.5.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthestudyscientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Thefourprinciplesthatmakelinguisticsascienceareexhausiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.6.Somebasicdistinctionsinlinguistics(1)SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscopeandusesthatspeechdoesnothave(2)Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(说明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalyzesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesforcorrectbehavour.(3)Synchronic(共时)andDiachronic(历时)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointofintimeisasychronicstudyandthedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.(4)Langue(语言)andParole(言语)ThisisthedistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguististF.DeSaussureearlylastcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.(5)Competence(能力)andPerformance(行为)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(发声).(6)linguisticpotential/linguisticbehavior7.Thescopeoflinguistics(1)Generallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.(2)Phoneticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.(3)Phonologyisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.(4)Morphologyisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.(5)Syntaxisthebranchoflinhguisticswhichstudiestherulesofgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.(6)Semanticsisthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.(7)A