语言学conversational-implicature

成员：陈萍何洋漪黄晶黄源源郑杰OutlineGriceCooperativePrincipleConversationalImplicatureGrice(1913—1988)aBritish-educatedphilosopheroflanguageStudy:Thedifferencesandrelationshipsbetweenspeakermeaningandlinguisticmeaning.nonliteralspeechastheoutcomeofacooperativeprinciple,andsomederivedmaximsofdiscourse,speakermeaningGrice'swork:heproposeddifferentkindsofimplicaturesandusedthattermasheclaimedthat'implication'wasnottherightword.Hereprintedmanyofhisessaysandpapersinhisvaledictorybook,StudiesintheWayofWords.Significance:oneofthefoundationsofthemodernstudyofpragmatics.CategoriesofImplicatureCooperativePrincipleCooperativeprincipleisaveryimportantfactorintheprocessofgeneratingimplicature.Grice:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedperposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.(Cole&Morgan,1975:45)FourMaximsofCooperativePrincipleQuantityMaxim(数量准则)QualityMaxim(质量准则)RelationMaxim（关系准则）MannerMaxim（方式准则）QuantityMaxim1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentperposeoftheexchange).2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Michaelhasfourdictionaries.Michaelhasfive,sixorevenmoredictionaries.QualityMaximTrytomakeyourcontributiontrue:1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Honestyisthefirstpolicy.RelationMaximBerelevant（关联的）.1)A:Mrs.Smithissodisgustingattheparty.B:Thecurtainisverybeautiful.2)A:Iamoutofpetrol.B:Thereisagarageatthecorner.MannerMaximBeperspicuous:1)Avoidobscurityofexpression.2)Avoidambiguity.3)Bebrief(Avoidunnecessaryprolixity)4)Beorderly.Openthedoor.Gotothedoor,putthekeyintothelock,turnthekeyclockwisetwotimesandpush.Husband:Whatshouldwebuyforthekids?Wife:Let'svetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ConversationalImplicaturesAconversationalimplicatureisaninferencefromthesemanticcontentdependingoncontext,speaker'sintention,hearer'sattitudeandthemutualassumption.Grice'sTheoryofConversationalImplicature(1967)isoneofthesinglemostimportantideasinpragmatics(Levinson,1983)examplesforimplicatureA:Howareyou?B:I'mdead.(possiblespeakermeaning:I'mverytired.)A:Wouldyoulikeacocktail?It'smyowninvention.B:Well,mmm,uhit'snotthatwedon'tnotdrink.(possiblespeakermeaning:No,Idon'tlikeit.)TwoCategoriesGeneralizedConversationalImplicatureParticularizedConversationalImplicatureGeneralizedimplicatureistheimplicaturethatarisesasaresultofobservingthemaxims.Thistypeofimplicaturecanbeunderstoodandinterpretedwithoutmakingreferencetoanyconversa-tionalcontexts.(不需上下文也能产生的会话含义叫一般会话含义)e.g.Iwalkedintoahouse.+Thehouseisnotmyhouse.(一般会话含义)Particularizedimplicature（特殊会话含义）arisesfromtheactoffloutingorviolatingthemaxims.Byfloutingthemaxims,thespeakerwantstoforcethelistenertodrawextendedimplicature.Therefore,theinterpretationofaparticularizedimplicaturehastorelyoncertainspecificcontextasinthefollowingexample：Thedogislookingveryhappy.（需要上下文才能产生的会话含义)SpecialfeaturesofimplicaturesCancellability可取消性Non-detachability不可分离性Calculability可推导性Non-conventionality非规约性Indeterminacy不确定性Cancellabilityaddmoreclausetocanceltheimplicature.1)Billhasfourbooks.(Implicature:Billhasonlyfourbooksandnomoreornoless.)Billhasfourbooks,perhapsfiveormore.2)A:Thereisayoungladywithhim,sir.Sheiscrying.B:Pretty?A:Ishouldsaysheispretty,sir,inaquiteinoffensiveway.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Infact,Idon'tlikecream.Non-detachabilityConversationalimplicaturesareattachedtothecontentratherthantotheform.Inotherwords,itisnotpossibletogetridoftheimplicaturesbysubstitutingwordswithsynonyms.Bobisagenius.Bobisamentalprodigy.Bobisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.BobisanenormousintellectBobisabigbrain.Compare:Billdidn'tmanagetosavethechild.Billdidn'tsavethechild.CalculabilityAnaddresseewouldmaketheinferenceinquestiontopreservetheassumptionofcooperation.asetoffactorswhichhavetobeanalyzedifwewanttoworkouttheimplicature:1)theconventionalmeaningoftheutterance,i.e.,thepropositionalcontent.2)theCooperativePrincipleandsubmaxims.3)thecontext.4)themutualunderstandingoftheparticipants,whathasbeensaidandwhatisexpectedtofollow.5)allthesethingsmustbeaccessibletotheparticipantsintheconversation.Non-conventionalityTheliteralmeaningremainsthesameinallcontexts,butconversationalimplicaturewillvaryorbelostasthecontextchanges.Itiscoldhere.IndeterminacyAnexpressionwithasinglemeaningcanproducedifferentimplicaturesasthecontextsandparticipantsvary.Heisanox.1)asstubbornasanox2)asdumbasanox.