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Chapter12:LanguageAndBrain1.neurolinguistics:Itisthestudyofrelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.2.psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguageacqisition,comprehensionandproduction.3.brainlateralization:Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptivefunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrain.4.dichoticlistening:Atechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrighteartodeterminethelateralizationofcognitivefunction.5.rightearadvantage:Thephenomenonthattherightearshowsanadvantagefortheperceptionoflinguisticsignalsidknownastherightearadvantage.6.splitbrainstudies:Theexperimentsthatinvestigatetheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarecalledassplitbrainstudies.7.aphasia:Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyatumor,anaccidentandsoon.8.non-fluentaphasia:Damagetopartsofthebraininfrontofthecentralsulcusiscallednon-fluentaphasia.9.fluentaphasia:Damagetopartsoftheleftcortexbehindthecentralsulcusresultsinatypeofaphasiacalledfluentaphasia.10.Acquireddyslexia:Damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobeoftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability,whichisreferredtoasacquireddyslexia.11.phonologicaldyslexia:itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemstohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrules.12.surfacedyslexia:itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemsunabletorecognizewordsaswholebutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-soundrules.13.spoonerism:aslipoftongueinwhichthepositionofsounds,syllables,orwordsisreversed,forexample,Let’shavechishandfipsinstendofLet’shavefishandchips.14.priming:theprocessthatbeforetheparticipantsmakeadecisionwhetherthestringoflettersisawordornot,theyarepresentedwithanactivatedword.15.frequencyeffect:Subjectstakelesstimetomakejudgementonfrequentlyusedwordsthantojudgelesscommonlyusedwords.Thisphenomenoniscalledfrequencyeffect.16.lexicaldecision:anexperimentthatletparticipantsjudgewhetherastringofletterisawordornotatacertaintime.17.theprimingexperiment:Anexperimentthatletsubjectsjudgewhetherastringoflettersisawordornotaftershowedwithastimulusword,calledprime.18.primingeffect:Sincethementalrepresentationisactivatedthroughtheprime,whenthetargetispresented,responsetimeisshorterthatitotherwisewouldhavebeen.Thisiscalledtheprimingeffect.(06F)19.bottom-upprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseprincipallyofinformationwhichisalreadypresentinthedata.20.top-downprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseofpreviousknowledgeandexperienceofthereadersinanalyzingandprocessinginformationwhichisreceived.21.gardenpathsentences:asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.22.slipofthetongue:mistakesinspeechwhichprovidepsycholinguisticevidenceforthewayweformulatewordsandphrases.Chapter11:SecondLanguageAcquisition1.secondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.2.targetlanguage:Thelanguagetobeacquiredbythesecondlanguagelearner.3.secondlanguage:Asecondlanguageisalanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicationandwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanotherlanguageorlanguages.4.foreignlanguage:Aforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacountry.5.interlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbysecondandforeignlanguagelearners,whoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrongexpressions.6.fossilization:Insecondorforeignlanguagelearning,thereisaprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.7.contrastiveanalysis:amethodofanalyzinglanguagesforinstructionalpurposeswherebyanativelanguageandtargetlanguagearecomparedwithaviewtoestablishingpointsofdifferencelikelytocausedifficultiesforlearners.8.contrastiveanalysishypothesis:Ahypothesisinsecondlanguageacquisition.Itpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguages,thelearnerwillacquiresecondlanguagestructurewithease,wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty.9.positivetransfer:Itreferstothetransferthatoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform,thusmakinglearningeasier.(06F)10.negativetransfer:themistakentransferoffeaturesofone’snativelanguageintoasecondlanguage.11.erroranalysis:thestudyandanalysisoferrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning.12.interlingualerror:errors,whichmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticaletc.13.intralingualerror:Errors,whichmainlyresultfromf