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IntroducingTranslationStudies:TheoriesandapplicationsChapter1Mainissuesoftranslationstudies1.1Theconcept1)Translationcanrefertothegeneralsubject,theproductortheactoftranslating.Itinvolveschanginganoriginalwrittentextinoriginallanguageintoawrittentextintargetlanguage.2)CzechstructuralistRomanJakobson’scategories:A.intra-lingualtranslation,orrewording:aninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofothersignsofthesamelanguage;B.inter-lingualtranslation,translationproper:aninterpretationofsignsbymeansofsomeotherlanguage;C.Inter-semiotictranslation,transmutation:bymeansofsignsofnon-verbalsignsystems.3)Intralinguatranslationoccurswhenrephrase,explainorclarify.Intersemiotictranslationoccursifatextweretranslatedintomusic,filmorpainting.1.2Translationstudies?○1Throughouthistory,translationshaveplayedacrucialroleininter-humancommunication,providingaccesstoimportanttextsofacademicandreligiousvalue.○2Yettranslationasanacademicsubjectbegunonlyfiftyyearsago,theDutch-basedUSscholarJamesS.Holmesin1972describesthethennascentdisciplineasbeingconcernedwiththeproblemsclusteredroundthetranslatingandtranslations.○31988,MarxSnell-Hornbswrotethatthebreathtakingdevelopmentandprolificinternationaldiscussionscallfortranslationstudiesasanindependentdiscipline.○4MonaBakersaystheexcitingnewdisciplinebringingtogetherscholarsfromawidevarietyoftraditionaldisciplines.Now,thedisciplinecontinuestodevelopfromstrengthtostrength.Therearetwoveryvisiblewaysinwhichtranslationhasbecomemoreprominent.1)Theproliferationoftranslatingandinterpretingcourses.In1999/2000,therewereatleast20postgraduatetranslationcoursesintheUKandseveralCentersofTranslation,atleast250universitiesinover60countriesofferingcommercialtranslationcourses,andstillothercourses,insmallernumbers,focusonliterarytranslation.2)The1990salsosawnumerousconferences,booksandjournalsontranslationinmanylanguages.Long-standinginternationaljournalssuchasBabel,Metahavebeenjoinedby,LiteratureinTranslation,TheTranslator,Perspectives(France),aswellasawholehostofcomparativeliterature.JohnBenjamins,RoutledgeandStJeromepublishedanumberofbooks.Inaddition,thereareprofessionalpublicationsincludeInterpretingandInOtherWords.Othersmallerperiodicalsgivedetailsofforthcomingevents,Internationaltranslationconferenceswereheldinmanycountries.Translationandtrainingtranslators(Bratislava,Slovakia);Literarytranslation(Mons,Belgium);Legaltranslation(Geneva,Switzerland);Genderandtranslation(Norwich,UK);Translationandmeaning(Maastricht,theNetherlands);Researchmodelsintranslationstudies(UMIST,Manchester,UK);Translationas/atthecrossroadsofculture(Lisbon,Portugal);Translationandglobalization(Tangiers,Morocco);Thehistoryoftranslation(Leon,Spain);Trans-adaptationandpedagogicalchallenges(Turku,Finland):Translation-focusedcomparativeliterature(Pretoria,SouthAfricaandSalvador,Brazil).Theabundanceoftranslationactivitiesindicatesthatithasnowbecomeoneofthemostactiveanddynamicnewareasofresearch.1.3Abriefhistory1)Writingsontranslatinggofarbackinhistory,forexample,Cicero,Horacehaveexertedimportantinfluences.StJerome’sapproachwouldaffectlaterScripturestranslations,whichwasthebattle-groundofconflictingideologiesforover1000years.2)Althoughtranslatingpracticeislongestablished,thestudywasnotanacademicdisciplineuntilthe2ndhalfof20thcentury.Beforethat,grammar-translationmethodhaddominatedsecondaryschoolswhichcenteredontheroteofgrammaticalrulesoftheforeignlanguage.Thegearingoftranslationtolanguageteachingpartlyexplainwhyacademiaconsideredittobeofsecondarystatus.Studyoftranslatedworkswasgenerallyfrownedupononceastudentmasteredskillstoreadtheoriginal.3)USApromotedtranslationin1960s.BasedonI.A.Richardssreadingandcreativewritingworkshops,translationworkshopswereestablishedinIowaandPrinceton,intendedasaplatformforintroductionanddiscussionoffinertranslationprinciples.Paralleltothisapproachwascomparativeliterature,necessitatingtranslation.4)Contrastiveanalysisattemptstoidentifydifferencesbetweenlanguages,althoughuseful,seldomincorporatesocioculturalandpragmaticfactors.5)In1950sand1960s.Anumberoflinguisticstudiesoftranslationnotonlydemonstratedtheirgutlinkwithtranslation,butalsobegantomarkouttheterritoryoftranslation.Nidausedthewordscience.1.4TheHolmes/Tourymap1)Holmes’spaperthenameandnatureoftranslationstudiesisthefoundingstatement.Henoticedthattranslationresearchwasdispersed.Hestressestheneedtoforgechannels,cuttingacrossdisciplinarygapstoreachallscholarsworkinginthefield.Heputsforwardanoverallframework,andhassubsequentlybeenpresentedbyIsraeliGideonToury.2)Generaltheoriesshouldseektodescribeoraccountforeverytypeoftranslationandtomakegeneralizationsforall.3)Descriptivetranslationstudies:examinationof(l)theproduct,(2)functionand(3)theprocess:A.Product-orientedDTSexaminesexistingtranslations.E.g.ananalysisofasingleST-TTpairoracomparativeanalysisofseveralTTsofthesameST.smaller-scalestudieslookataspecificperiod,languageortexttype.Larger-scalecanbeeitherdiachronicorsynchronic.B.Function-orientedDTS,culturalorientedtranslationstudies,astudyofcontextsrathe