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托福阅读---段落内容的组织结构近几年的托福阅读文章难度逐步增大，这种难度主要体现在四方面：词汇，句式，衔接和篇章。在同学们攻克了词汇和语法关后，就要学会从宏观上来把控文章，所以今天我们就衔接方面的内容和大家进行探讨。衔接主要是段落内部及段落之间通过何种方式进行语义连接。我们今天通过借鉴官方指南书中的文章来基本了解段落内部的组织结构。1分类式（classification）例子Manypeoplehavetocommunicateandworkwithmembersofothercultures,andsocialskillstrainingisnowbeinggiventosomeofthesewhoareabouttoworkabroad.Interculturalcommunicationisnecessaryforseveralkindsofpeople.Touristsareprobablythelargestgroup,thoughtheystayfortheshortestperiodsandneedtomasteronlyafewsimplesituations…这个段落是典型的分类式写法，把需要进行跨文化交流的人分成几类，接下来分别描述，首当其冲的就是旅游者。官方指南1）Desertificationisaccomplishedprimarythroughthelossofstabilizingnaturalvegetationandthesubsequentacceleratederosionofsoilbywindandwater.(P)Insomecasestheloosesoilisblowncompletelyaway,leavingastonysurface.Inothercases,thefinerparticlesmayberemoved,whilethesand-sizedparticlesareaccumulatedtoformmobilehillsorridgeofsand.(I)这段内容是一个典型的总分结构，即point+illustration。观点很明显是说沙漠化的原因是植被消失，土壤侵蚀。接下来的论证时进一步补充说明植被消失之后，土壤可能会碰到的状况，分成了两种情况。一种情况松散的土壤完全被吹走，还有一种情况小颗粒被带走，沙子大小的颗粒聚集成沙山，进而逐步累积形成沙漠化。2）Expandingpopulationsaresubjectingthelandtoincreasingpressuretoprovidethemwithlandandfuel.(P)Inwetperiods,thelandmaybeabletorespondtothesestresses.Duringthedryperiodsthatarecommonphenomenonalongthedesertmargins,thepressureonthelandisoftenfarinexcessofitsdiminishedcapacityto,anddesertificationresults.(I)这个段落同样讲沙漠化的原因，内部也是总分结构，说的是人变多，土地的压力增大这个原因。然后分情况强化论点，天气湿润还行；天气干燥，土地就没法处理这种人口压力，会导致沙漠化。3）Fourspecificactivitieshavebeenidentifiedasmajorcontributorstothedesertificationprocesses:overcultivation,overgrazing,firewoodgatheringandoverirrigation.文章之后则是分别阐述每一个活动为什么造成沙漠化。其他信号词总结：Categories;classification;groups;parts;types;characteristics;elements;kinds;sorts;ways;classes2比较对比式（ComparisonandContrast）比较式ElephantsarethebiggestlandcreaturesonEarth,andamongthesmartestandmostendearing.Intheirlivesandsocialdynamicstheyresemblehumansinmanyways.文章开头谈到resemble，表明之后的文章会把大象同人作比较。其他信号词总结：compare,like/alike,resembles,incomparison,likewise,similar,inthesameway/manner,parallels,similarly官方指南TheseKinetoscopearcadesweremodeledonphonographparlors,whichhadprovensuccessfulforEdisonseveralyearsearlier.Inthephonographparlors…TheKinetoscopeparlorfunctionedinasimilarway.很明显这里是比较式写法，爱迪生同志所发明的K机器（用于早期的peepshow当中的机器）的建造模型是留声机。对比式Longlumpedtogetherbyordinaryfolksandscholarsalike,envyandjealousyarenotasingle,formless“superemotion”.Onthecontrary,theyaredistinct,withdifferentcomponents,andareinfactelicitedbycompletelydifferentsituationsandincompletelydifferentsettings.（P）AccordingtoaGeorgetownUniversitypsychologist…envyoccurswhenapersonlacksanotherperson’ssuperiorquality,achievement,orpossession,anddesiresit---orwishesthattheotherpersonlackedit.Jealousy,bycontrast,occursinthecontextofacloserelationshipwhenapersonfearslosinganimportantthingtoarival---inparticular,losingarelationshipthatisimportanttoone’ssenseofself.Jealousy,bycontrast,occursinthecontextofacloserelationshipwhenapersonfearslosinganimportantthingtoarival---inparticular,losingarelationshipthatisimportanttoone’ssenseofself.这一小段文章的topic是jealousy和envy两词的区别。然后进行对比论证，同时辅以举例论证。举例十分的形象。以后我们就知道了，当我们和男朋友讨论恋爱史时，他如果满脸笑容的谈到说他的上一任是刘亦菲时，你的内心很有可能会同时经历两种情感。你嫉妒（envy）那个前女友，那么纯洁美丽；同时你更嫉妒（jealous）他的一脸笑容，那满足的神情，因为你觉得这可能会破坏你们的恋爱关系。其他信号词总结：Although,however,ontheotherhand,asopposedto,incontrastto,ratherthan,but,instead,unlike,conversely,nevertheless,whereas,difference,onthecontrary,yet,different官方指南1Withtheadventofprojectionin1895-1896,motionpicturesbecametheultimateformofconsumption.Previously,largeaudiencehadviewedspectaclesatthetheatre.Butthemoviedifferedsignificantlyfromtheseotherformsofentertainment,whichdependedoneitherliveperformanceorinthecaseofslide-and-lanternshowstheactiveinvolvementofamasterceremonieswhoassembledtofinalprogram.本文是在讲投影技术出现之后，电影成了消费形式。之后的论证部分通过对比指出电影的本质是不需要现场演出或者是大师的积极参与。2Butresearchfindingsontheusefulnessofcatharsisaremixed.Somestudiessuggestthatcatharsisleadstoreductionintensionandaloweredlikelihoodoffutureaggression.Otherstudies,however,suggestthatlettingsomesteamactuallyencouragesmoreaggressionlateron.探讨的是catharsis（泻药）的用途，当然实际是指发泄（ventaggression）的效用。这一小段内部大方向上说是分类结构，不过这个分类的实质是正反对比的两种理论：一些认为发泄会减少紧张，另一些认为会进一步鼓励攻击性行为。3Before1815manufacturingintheUnitedStateshadbeendoneinhomesorshopsbyskilledartisans…After1815thisolderformofmanufacturingbegantogivewaytofactorieswithmachinerytendedbyunskilledorsemiskilledlaborers.这一小段是以1815作为分界线，来吧生产形式作一个对比，之前是手工，之后是机器。3举例子（Example）托福阅读的文章科普性比较重，所以例子基本以科学研究为主。官方指南例子一Cognitivepsychologistsassertthatourbehaviorisinfluencedbyourvaluesbythewaysinwhichweinterpretoursituations,andbychoice.Forexample,peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustifiedarelikelytoactaggressivelywhereas…这个例子举了两组人来论证我们的价值观会影响我们的行为（攻击性）。大家可以借鉴学术文章举例子的方式，很少用myneighborJack这样具体的例子，一般都是泛泛的谈，相对具有说服力。例子二Theoristsholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesareinevitablereactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife…这一段用的是弗洛伊德的例子，本质上是科学研究。结合例一例二，大家以后写学术文章例子的思路就有了，少举太过个人的例子，可以侧重整体概念和名人例子。例子三Sociob