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Ch1Trends06.19.02.doc06.19.02Chapter1.ConceptsUnderlyingOrganizationalEffectiveness:TrendsintheOrganizationandManagementScienceLiteratureByKathrynA.BakerandKristiM.BranchSinceorganizationandmanagementscienceemergedintheearly1900sinconjunctionwiththeindustrialrevolution,anevolutionhasoccurredinconceptsaboutthenatureandfunctionoforganizationsandthecriteriafororganizationaleffectiveness.Theseconceptshavegrownandevolvedindynamicinteractionwiththeorganizationsandinstitutionsthathavebecomethecompanies,governmentalagencies,andnot-for-profitorganizationsoftoday’sincreasinglyglobalsociety.Fromalmostnothingattheturnofthetwentiethcentury,organizationandmanagementsciencehasbecomepervasiveattheturnofthetwenty-first,representedprominentlyincollegesanduniversities,librariesandbookstores,andinthetrainingclassesofpublicandprivatesectororganizationsalike.Overthecourseofthis100yearhistory,coreconceptshavebeendevelopedanddisseminated–aboutindividualsandorganizations,workersandmanagers,systemsandnetworks–thathaveshapedthethinkingandbehaviorofmanagers,employees,andpolicy-makersalike.Aswithallscience,presentunderstandingisbuiltuponpastthinkingandresearch.Familiaritywiththeoriginandevolutionoftheconcepts,models,andrules-of-thumbuponwhichcontemporaryperspectivesofeffectiveorganizationsandmanagementarebasedcanhelpmanagersofpubliclyfundedscienceorganizationsthinkmorecreativelyabouttheirownorganizationsandmanagementstrategies.Organizationsthatfundanddirectscienceaswellasthelaboratories,universities,andotherorganizationsthatconductscientificresearchareundergrowingpressuretodemonstrateeffectivemanagement,providegreateraccountability,andaccomplishmorewithfewerresources–toimprovetheireffectiveness.Managersintheseorganizations,thoughtendingtothinkofthemselvesasscientistsfirstandmanagerssecond,areneverthelessbeingcalledupontoaddressissuesoforganizationalandsystemeffectivenessandtobeinnovativenotonlyinthescientificresearchtheirorganizationssponsororconductbutalsointhedesignandmanagementoftheirorganizations.Thischapterprovidesaverybriefdescriptionofthemajorconceptsandtrendsintheorganizationandmanagementsciences,highlightingtheseminalworksandkeycontributorsinthesefieldsofresearch.Theinterplayamongindividuals(andtheoriesabouthowindividualsbehaveandareinfluenced),organizations(andtheoriesabouthoworganizationsareformedandoperate),andmorerecently,thebroaderscientificsystemiscentralinthesesciences;managingthatinterplayiscrucialtoorganizationalandmanagerialeffectivenessinpubliclyfundedscience.Thekeydimensionsoforganizationaldesignandmanagementareidentified,followedbyabriefoverviewofthemajorconceptsanddefinitionsoforganizationsandtheirassociatedmanagementstrategies.Next,thechapteraddressesfittingorganizationaldesignstothespecificcircumstancesofeachentity,resultinginmultiplemodelsofbothorganizationandmanagement.Theconcludingsectionsummarizestheemergingnewlogicoforganizationandmanagementandcomparesitwiththeprevailinglogicoftheearlierperiods.Ch1Trends06.19.02.doc206.19.02KeyDimensionsOrganizationsarecomposedofindividualsandoperatewithinsystems.Individuals,organizations,andsystemsconstitutetheprincipalunitsofanalysisoftheorganizationalandmanagementsciences,albeitalwaysfromanorganizationalperspective(i.e.,theindividualsofinterestarewithinanorganizationorsetoforganizations).Foreachunitofanalysis,asshowninFigure1,attentioncanbefocusedinternally(withintheorganization)orexternally(ontheexternalenvironmentoroninteractionswiththeexternalenvironment),though,asdiscussedbelow,conceptsaboutboththenatureoftheorganizationanditsrelationshipwiththeexternalenvironmenthaveundergonedramaticchangeoverthecourseofthelast100years.UnitofAnalysisFocusofAttention/InteractionIndividualOrganizationSystemInternally--WithintheOrganizationExternally--WiththeExternalEnvironmentFigure1.DifferentPerspectivesonOrganizationsandManagementAsMorgan(1997)vividlydescribes,therearenumerouswaystoconceptualizeandmodelanorganization,withprofoundconsequencesforcriteriaofeffectiveness.Theseconceptstypicallydealwithorganizationalformandstructureontheonehandandorganizationalfunctionsandactivitiesontheother.Howtheorganizationisdesignedandhowitsfunctionsaredefinedobviouslyhaveimportantimplicationsforhowprocessesandpeoplearemanaged.If,forexample,managersthinkoftheorganizationasamachinefortheefficientproductionofproducts(whetherthesearewidgets,services,orresearchresults),thenmanagementcontrolswillseektomaximizeproductionandstandardizeproductsforefficiency.Iftheorganizationisseenasfluxandtransformation,then“thefundamentalroleofmanagersistoshapeandcreate‘contexts’inwhichappropriateformsofself-organizationcanoccur”(Morgan1997:267).Dooley(1997:69)hasobservedthatthe“prevailingparadigmofagivenera’smanagementtheorieshashistoricallymimickedtheprevailingparadigmofthatera’sscientifictheories.”Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,organizationandmanagementtheoriesheldreductionism,determinism,andequilibriumascoreprinciples(theorganizationasamachinemetaphor),andaccordedmanagementneartotalauthorityovertheworkpl