教师激励、教师评价体制与中国西部农村学生教育产出

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Poverty,Education,andHealthinRuralChinaDecember15-16,UniversityofOxford教师激励、教师评价体制与中国西部农村学生教育产出Teachers’Incentives,TeacherEvaluationSystemandChildren’sEducationOutcomesinRuralWesternChinaAnXuehuiNationalCenterforEducationDevelopmentResearch,CHINA.Teachers’Incentives,TeacherEvaluationSystemandChildren’sEducationOutcomesinRuralWesternChina引言Introduction中国农村中小学教师的评价考核制度TeacherEvaluationSysteminRuralChina教师质量与相关控制变量TeacherQualityandControlVariables数据与模型方法DataandMethodology结果与分析Results政策启示与讨论PolicyImplicationsandDiscussion引言Introduction(一)文献综述LiteratureReview1.是否应当针对教师的工作绩效,采取一定的物质奖励Shouldweusematerialincentivestotrytoimproveteachingperformance?教育生产过程和市场运行中的公司机制有着显著的区别,教师激励的机制不同于一般的公司员工、经理的管理。许多学校之所以由政府直接控制、管理,避免学校对于教师采取过度的物质激励而导致教育的目标发生扭曲。(Acemoglu、Kremer和Mian)Educationalprocessesaredifferentfromcorporateprocesses.Teachers’incentivesaredifferentfromtheincentivesofcorporatestaff.Inordertoavoidtheschooloverusinganddistortingeducationalobjectives,mostschoolsarecontrolledbygovernment.如果不对教师进行物质激励,那么就需要通过充分的学校竞争来提高教师的努力程度。美国公立学校之间的竞争会起到促进教育绩效和提高教学质量的作用(Hoxby,2000;Hanushek和Rivkin,2003)。Ifwedon’tusematerialincentives,thenweneedafull,perfectlycompetitiveenvironmentormarketbetweenschools,whichcanincentivizeschoolsorteacherstoimproveteachingqualityandperformance.如果学校对教育内容拥有自主权,家长对学校和教师的管理有一定的发言权,学生有自由的择校选择权,并且择校的成本对于多数学生的家庭是可以负担的,教师劳动力市场的流动机制比较完善,那么学校之间的竞争就会比较充分。Thecharacteristicsofaperfectlycompetitiveschoolmarketare:1)schoolshavethepowertocontroltheteachingcontent;2)parentshavesomerightstomanagetheschool;3)studentshavethefreedomofschoolchoice;4)mostfamiliescanaffordthecost;and5)thereisaperfectteachermobilitymarketmechanism.美国中小学教师的工资水平并不能准确地反应教师质量,这和美国公立学校教师管理体制的多方面因素相关。(Hanushek和Rivkin,2006)在不完全市场的条件下,建立教师的物质激励机制是一个必要的手段。Researchhasfoundthatteachers’salariesdonotaccuratelyreflectteachingqualityintheUS.Rather,theyarecorrelatedtothesystemofteachermanagement.Otherresearchhaspointedoutthatunderimperfectmarketconditions,itisnecessarytosetupamaterialincentivesystem.2.Domaterialincentivesworkforimprovingteachingeffortandperformance?多数的实证研究都支持教师激励机制对于教育绩效的积极作用(Lavy,2002,2004;Eberts、Hollenbeck&Stone,Figlio&Kenny,2007)Mostempiricalstudieshavefoundthatmaterialincentiveshaveapositiveinfluenceonteachingperformance这些研究在统计上都无法排除教师激励体制的内生性问题,因为激励体制和学生成绩都会受到学校其他特性的影响。Butmoststudiesdonotdealwiththeendogeneityproblemsthatarisebecausetheincentivesystemandstudentperformancearealsoaffectedbyotherschoolcharacteristics.Glewwe、Ilias和Kremer(2003)通过对肯尼亚小学教师的集体性奖励实验,认为奖励机制使得教师追求短期内的学生成绩提高,对学生的长期学习效果没有帮助。Experimentalresearch,suchasthatconductedinKenyawithprimaryteachers,hasfoundthatasystemofrewardsandencouragementimprovestheteachingperformanceintheshortterm,butisnothelpfulinthelongterm.Muralidharan和Sundararaman(2006)在印度的实验结果显示,对于教师的集体性和个人性物质奖励显著提高了学生的成绩。ExperimentalresearchinIndiahasfoundthatcollectiveandindividualmaterialincentivessignificantlyincreasestudents’performance.Experimentalresearchcansolvetheendogeneityproblemtosomeextent.如果将奖励办法制度化,会有助于增强教师在长期内的工作努力程度。Insummary,institutionalizationofasystemofrewardsandencouragementforteachersmayimproveteachingeffortinthelongterm.类似的实验分析虽然较好地处理了激励制度和教师行为的内生性问题,但实验的期间都比较短,尚不足以充分说明长期效应。距离现实的复杂性还有一定的距离。Althoughexperimentalresearchsolvestheendogeneityproblemverywellintheshortterm,itcannotprovelongtermeffects.Herewestillfaceagapbetweentheexperimentalconditionsandreality.3.Differentschoolsusedifferentincentivesystems现实中不同的学校采用了不同的激励措施。美国的公立学校(1993)有13%的学区使用了对教师的物质奖励(Ballou,2001)。美国的私立学校更为广泛应用教师激励计划,也更倾向于解雇不称职的教师(Ballou&Podgursky,1997;Ballou,2001)。Differentschoolsusedifferentincentivesystems.Forexample,only13%percentofpublicschoolsintheUSusematerialincentives.Privateschools,ontheotherhand,morecomprehensivelyimplementincentiveplansanddismissalofunqualifiedteachers.一些地方教育管理部门也开始积极推行教师激励计划。如佛罗里达州准许将教师的工资的5%作为对教师的奖励(Figlio和Kenny,2007)。在特许公立学校(charterschool)中有46%的学校均采取了针对教师绩效的物质奖励措施(Podgursky和Ballou,2001)。SomelocalgovernmentsintheUShavealsobeguntoimplementteacherincentiveplans.Forexample,inFloridastate,46%percentofcharterschoolsusematerialincentivestargetingtheimprovementofteachingperformance.大量的公立学校没有采取绩效奖励的机制,并不是因为教师工资已经足够灵活了。ButmostpublicschoolsintheUShavenotusedasystemtorewardteachingperformance.Itisnotbecausetheteacherincomeisflexibleenough.为什么公立学校的激励体制比较弱化?WhyistheincentivesystemnotstronglyusedinpublicschoolsintheUS?学校没用采取有效的教师激励体制,并非是由于学校没有意识到激励的重要性,而是因为缺乏外部的竞争压力Hanushek(2002,2003)。Researchhasfoundthatpublicschoolsdonotuseanincentivesystem,notbecausetheschoolshavenotrecognizedtheimportanceofit,butbecausetheylackthepressureofcompetition.通过对美国公立、私立和特许公立学校的对比,指出在放松管制和分权的体制之下,市场竞争会促使学校采取灵活的教师激励机制和聘用机制.Podgursky(2006)Throughcomparativeanalysisofpublicschools,privateschoolsandcharterschools,researchhasfoundthatunderdecentralization,marketcompetitionwillurgeschoolstouseflexibleteacherincentivesystemsandemploymentmechanisms.Chubb和Moe(1988)对比了美国公立和私立学校的外部政治、社会组织环境,研究结果表明学校的外部环境会对学校的管理体制产生重要的影响,这是私立学校更为有效率的原因。Researchhasfoundthatthepolitical,socialandorganizationalenv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